ALTERNATES AT 17 NOVEMBER 1989 NATIONAL SPACE COUNCIL MEETING

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP91B01306R000300070005-7
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: U
• Document Page Count: 329
• Document Creation Date: December 23, 2016
• Document Release Date: November 4, 2013
• Sequence Number: 5
• Publication Date: November 17, 1989
• Content Type: MISC

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FOR OEQCONLY
Alternates at
17 November 1989
National Space Council Meeting
White House
Chief of Staff
Office for
Economic and
Domestic Policy
NASA J.R. Thompson, Aaron Cohen,
Ken Pedersen, and John Young
ICS
State
Treasury
Commerce
OMB
Defense
OSTP
NSC
Transportation
JCS
Fred Bernthal
Richard Del Bello
Robert Grady
Doug Graham
Judy Bostock
Will Toby
Brigadier General Jerome Jones
DOE John Tuck
FOR 0FL?tTSE ONLY
STAT
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Attendees at
17 November 1989
National Space Council Meeting
White House
Chief of Staff
Office for
Economic and
Domestic Policy
Vice President Dan Quayle, Chairman
Governor John Sununu
Mr. Brad Mitchell
NASA Vice Admiral Richard Truly
DCI Judge William Webster
State The Honorable Reginald Bartholomew
Treasury The Honorable Sidney Jones
Commerce The Honorable John Shaw
OMB The Honorable Richard Darman
Defense The Honorable Donald Rice
OSTP The Honorable Allan Bromley
NSC The Honorable Arnold Kantor
Transportation Ms. Stephanie Lee-Miller
JCS General Robert Herres
DOE Admiral James Watkins
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
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SUBJECT: (Optional)
Point Paper for
ROM:
ROUTING AND RECORD SHEET
1 Space Council Meeting - 17 November 1989 (U)
Acting Director, Intelligence Community
Staff
TO: (Officer designation, room number, and
building)
? Executive Registry
Rm 7E12, OHB
- DATE
1 EXTENSION NO.
ICS 4354-89
RECEIVED
FORWARDED
1 6 NW 1989
DATE
16 November 1989
OFFICER'S COMMENTS (Number each comment to show from whom
INITIALS to whom. Draw a line across column ,after each comment.)
4. Director of Central
-
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10.
1 1 .
12.
13.
1 5.
4
FORM 610
1-79
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THE FOLLOWING DOCUMENTS
ARE ATTACHED:
(Please do not remove)
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'OR 89- itc/92/2.
'ICS 4133,3 - 89
/Cs 4110 - 89
SUBJECT: NovemBER 17, 11 81
IWATIONAL SPACE covovcit.
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FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
ROUTING AND RECORD SHEET
SUBJECT: (Optional)
Point Paper for National Space Council Meeting - 17 November 1989
?
Acting Director, Intelligence Community
Staff
TO: (Officer designation, room number, and
building)
EXTENSION
NO.
ICS 4354-89
(U)
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DATE
DATE
16 November 1989
STAT
RECEIVED
FORWARDED
OFFICER'S
INITIALS
COMMENTS (Number each comment to show from whom
to whom. ?Draw a line across column after each comment.)
. ER
Rm 7E12, OHB
3.
4.
9.
10.
12.
13.
14.
15.
( EXEC
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FORM 610 USE PREVIOUS
1-79 EDITIONS
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
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ROUTING SLIP
TO:
ACTION
INFO
DATE
INITIAL
1
DCI
X
2
DDCI
X
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EXDIR
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D/ICS
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DDI
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DDA
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D/PERS
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D/Ex Staff
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A.
git
SUSPENSE
Date
Remarks To 4: As the DCI's surrogate for the Space
Council, suggests you attend as 0ISTAT
principal since DDCI will be on TDY. Also, select
someone to attend with you.
ER 89-4492
Executive Secretary
1 Nov 89
Date
3637 (10-81)
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ROUTING SLIP
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INFO
DATE
INITIAL
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D/PERS
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D/Ex Staff
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SUSPENSE
Date
Remarks To 4: As the DCI s surrogate for the Space
Counci1 3uggests you attend as ouSTAT
principal since DDCI will be on TDY. Also, select
someone to attend with you.
ER 89-4492
DCI
EXEC
REG
Executive Secretary
1 Nov 89
Date
3637 (1041)
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r
' NATIONAL SPACE COUNCIL
EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT
- WASHINOTON. D.C. 20500
November 1, 1989
MEMORANDUM FOR MR. J. STAPLETON ROY
Executive Secretary
Department of State
MS. EMILY I. WALKER
Executive Secretary
Department of Treasury
COL GEORGE P. COLE, JR.
Executive Secretary
Department of Defense
MR. CRAIG R. HELSING
Chief of Staff
Department of Commerce
MS. RUTH MOUSE
Director, Executive
Secretariat
Department of
Transportation
GOV. JOHN H. SUNUNU
Chief of Staff
to the President
SUBJECT: National Space
ER 89-4492
MR. G. PHILIP HUGHES
Executive Secretary
National Security Council
MR. FRANK HODSOLL
Associate Director
Office of Management
and Budget
DR. ALLAN BROMLEY
Director
Office of Science and
Technology Policy
BRIG GEN THOMAS WHITE
Executive Assistant
to the Chairman
Joint Chiefs of Staff
MS. JESSIE HARRIS
Executive Officer
National Aeronautics and
Space Administration
MR. H. LAWRENCE SANDALL
Executive Secretary
Central Intelligence
Agency
Council Meeting
The Vice President will chair a one hour meeting of the National
Space Council on November 17, 1989, beginning at 11:00 a.m., to
receive a presentation from the Administrator of NASA and
consider aspects of the President's space exploration initiative.
The meeting will be in the Cordell Hull Conference Room, OEOB
room 208. Attendance will be limited to principal, plus one.
Please provide names of meeting attendees to Cynthia Chase at
395-61751 by noon, Wednesday, November 15.
MARK J. ALBRECHT
Executive Secretary
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FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
POINT PAPER FOR
NATIONAL SPACE COUNCIL MEETING
17 NOVEMBER 1989
Time/Place
o
The meeting
will be at 10:00 a.m. in the Cordell Hull
Conference
Room, 0E0B, Room
208.
STAT
o
The AD/ICS,
will accompany the DCI.
Purpose of Meeting
NASA Administrator, Vice Admiral Truly, will present
NASA's results of its study on space exploration.
(See meeting announcement Tab A.)
o This is not a decision meeting.
Discussion
o In support of the President's space exploration
initiative, NASA prepared a document, "Report of the
90-Day Study on Human Exploration of the Moon and
Mars" (Tab B).
o The report provides a data base for future
Administration decisionmaking on the space exploration
initiative. It considers five reference approaches
and addresses questions of program objectives,
schedules, technologies, and resource requirements.
In addition, the report provides information regarding
the benefits of the space exploration initiative,
international participation considerations, and
potential management enhancements.
o Vice Admiral Truly gave a briefing at the National
Space Council's Policy Implementation and Review
Committee (PIRC) meeting on 15 November 1989. The
briefing summarized and closely follows the 90-day
study. Therefore, we suggest you try to read at least
the Executive Summary prior to the meeting.
o Several issues and comments did come up in the
discussions which followed the briefing. The issues
dealt with the costs of this initiative and
releasability of the report. Both issues were
discussed in the PIRC MFR, dated 15 November 1989
(Tab C).
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
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o Anticipated Space Council attendees for the
17 November meeting (Tab D).
Recommended Talking Points
o No comments are required or recommended.
Background Material
o The background point paper (Tab E) for the last Space
Council meeting provides information on the larger
effort in support of the President's space exploration
initiative.
Attachments:
A. National Space Council Memo,
dtd 14 Nov 1989
B. NASA's Report of the 90?Day
Study on Human Exploration
of the Moon and Mars
C. PIRC MFR, dtd 15 Nov 1989
D. Space Council Attendees,
dtd 17 Nov 89
E. Background Point Paper for
National Space Council
Meeting, dtd 26 Oct 1989
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
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SUBJECT: Point Paper for National Space Council Meeting-
17 November 1989 (U)
I CS/PPO,
STAT
(15 November 1989)
Distribution: (ICS 4354-89)
Orig - DCI
1 - ER
1 - AD/ICS
1 - D/PPO
1 - DD/PPO
1 - PPO Chrono
1 - PPO Subject (Fay)
1 - DD/PPO Chrono
1 - ICS Registry
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
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TAB A
NATIONAL SPACE COUNCIL
EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20500
November 141. 1989
MEMORANDUM FOR MR. J. STAPLETON ROY
Executive Secretary
Department of State
MS. EMILY L. WALKER
Executive Secretary
Department of Treasury
COL GEORGE P. COLE, JR.
Executive Secretary
Department of Defense
MR. THOMAS MURRIN
Deputy Secretary
Department of Commerce
MS. RUTH KNOUSE
Director, Executive
Secretariat
Department of
Transportation
COV. JOHN H. SUNUNU
Chief of Staff
to the President
MR. ROBERT MATHIAS
Executive Assistant
to the Secretary
Department of Energy
MR. G. PHILIP HUGHES
Executive Secretary
National Security Council
MR. FRANK HODSOLL
Associate Director
Office of Management
and Budget
DR. ALLAN BROMLEY
Director
Office of Science and
Technology Policy
BRIG GEN THOMAS WHITE
Executive Assistant
to the Chairman
Joint Chiefs of Staff
MS. JESSIE HARRIS
Executive Officer
National Aeronautics and
Space Administration
MR. H. LAWRENCE SANDALL
Executive Secretary
Central Intelligence
Agency
SUBJECT: National Space Council Meeting
The Space Council meeting, previously scheduled for Friday,
November 17, at 11:00 a.m., has been moved to 10:00 a.m. The
meeting will be in the Cordell Hull Conference Room, OEOB
room 208.
MARK J. ALBRECHT
Executive Secretary
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NATIONAL SPACE COUNCIL
EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20500
November 14, 1989
MEMORANDUM FOR THE POLICY AND IMPLEMENTATION REVIEW COMMITTEE
SUBJECT: NASA Report to Admiral Truly on Human Space
Exploration
The PIRC meeting scheduled for tomorrow, November 15, and the
subsequent National Space Council meeting on Friday, November 17,
are convened to allow NASA to present the results of its study on
space exploration. The study was prepared under the supervision
of Dr. Aaron Cohen, Director of the Johnson Space Center, and
submitted to the NASA Administrator. I attach copies of the
study for your use prior to these meetings.
The Vice President will be seeking independent views and analyses
of human exploration alternatives in the weeks ahead. Within a
few days, we will be asking for help in conducting such analyses.
This process will support the Space Council deliberations in
December and January.
Please note that the Space Council meeting on Friday,
November 17, previously scheduled for 11:00 a.m., has been moved
to 10:00 a.m.
Attachment
MARE J. ALBRECHT
Executive Secretary
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NATIONAL SPACE COUNCIL
EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20500
November 14,. 1989
MEMORANDUM FOR MR. J. STAPLETON ROY
Executive Secretary
Department of State
SUBJECT:
MS. EMILY L. WALKER
Executive Secretary
Department of Treasury
COL GEORGE P. COLE, JR.
Executive Secretary
Department of Defense
MR. THOMAS MURRIN
Deputy Secretary
Department of Commerce
MS. RUTH KNOUSE
Director, Executive
Secretariat
Department of
Transportation
GOV. JOHN H. SUNUNU
Chief of Staff
to the President
MR. ROBERT MATHIAS
Executive Assistant
to the Secretary
Department of Energy
MR. G. PHILIP HUGHES
Executive Secretary
National Security Council
MR. FRANK HODSOLL
Associate Director
Office of Management
and Budget
DR. ALLAN BROMLEY
Director
Office of Science'and
Technology Policy
BRIG GEN THOMAS WHITE
Executive Assistant
to the Chairman
Joint Chiefs of Staff
MS. JESSIE HARRIS
Executive Officer
National Aeronautics and
Space Administration
MR. H. LAWRENCE SANDALL
Executive Secretary
Central Intelligence
Agency
National Space Council Meeting
The Space Council meeting, previously scheduled for Friday,
November 17, at 11:00 a.m., has been moved to 10:00 a.m. The
meeting will be in the Cordell Hull Conference Room, OEOB
room 208.
MARK J. ALBRECHT
Executive Secretary
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NASA
National Aeronautics and
Space Administration
Washington, D.C.
20546
Reply to Attn 01 A
Vice Admiral Richard H. Truly
Administrator
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NASA Headquarters
Washington, DC 20546
Dear Admiral Truly:
I am providing you the report resulting from our 90-day study to examine
elements of the President's Human Exploration Initiative. This report represents
the effort of teams from across the Agency. Each Program Associate
Administrator developed functional and discipline assessments for the Initiative
and participated in the integration of the overall study. NASA centers and JPL
participated in the program office assessments and contributed members to the
study team. A technical study group integrated the inputs of the center
representatives and conducted detailed analyses and trade studies. Finally, a
report assembly team worked with all involved to produce the enclosed report.
Throughout the study, reviews were conducted by the Associate Administrators
and center directors as well as a review team made up of senior agency officials.
As described in the Preface, this report provides a data base for future
Administration decision-making on the Human Exploration Initiative. It
considers five reference approaches and addresses questions of program
objectives, schedules, technologies, and resource requirements. In addition, the
report provides information regarding the benefits of the Human Exploration
Initiative, international participation considerations, and potential management
enhancements.
We believe this report represents a good starting point for Council deliberations
and we plan to continue our efforts as the Human Exploration Initiative develops.
The data base will permit the development of implementation options for use in the
policy formulation process. Beyond providing this data base, NASA is also
working with the Space Council on separate assessments of a number of critical
issues including alternative approaches to schedule and technology development,
and international cooperation. It is significant to note that the approaches are
based on current and forecasted advances in technological capabilities. Should
breakthroughs in any of several key technologies ? including propulsion, life
support, and power ? cause these technologies to advance more rapidly than
anticipated, increases in performance or reductions in cost could result.
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Throughout the effort to develop the report, I have had the opportunity to speak
with a large number of people and I have been encouraged by the enthusiasm
displayed and the thousands of hours so many people willingly contributed to the
study. I am impressed not only with the capability available for the Human
Exploration Initiative, but also with the dedication and excitement of individuals
within the Agency as well as those outside the Agency.
I feel the message is clear from those who participated in the 90-day study. NASA
stands ready to support the Nation's decision to complete Space Station Freedom,
to return to the Moon, this time to stay, and then press onward to Mars.
Sincerely,
Aaron Cohen
Enclosure
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Preface
In his speech on July 20, 1989, President Bush asked Vice President Quayle to
lead the National Space Council in determining what is needed to chart a
new and continuing course to the Moon and Mars and beyond: the necessary
money, manpower, and materials, the feasibility of international cooperation,
and realistic timetables with milestones along the way.
To support this endeavor, NASA Administrator Richard H. Truly created a task
force to conduct a 90-day study of the main elements of a Human Exploration
Initiative. The Initiative described in this report encompasses robotic as well as
human missions. It is, nonetheless, a distinctly human adventure in the broad-
est sense involving not only human space travelers, but also extending into the
solar system the skills, imagination, and support of many thousands of people
who will never leave Earth.
The information contained in this report describes study progress and serves as
a reference point to assist the Council in its deliberations. Five reference ap-
proaches are modeled building on past programs and recent studies to reflect
wide-ranging strategies that incorporate varied program objectives, schedules,
technologies, and resource availabilities.
The five reference approaches presented reflect the President's strategy: First,
Space Station Freedom, and next back to the Moon, and then a journey to Mars.
The destination is, therefore, determined, and with that determination the
general mission objectives and key program and supporting elements are de-
fined. As a result, regardless of the implementation approach selected, heavy-
lift launch vehicles, space-based transportation systems, surface vehicles, habi-
tats, and support systems for living and working in an extraterrestrial environ-
ment are required.
As deliberations proceed, the task force is prepared to support the analysis of
implementation options and option variations identified by the Administrator,
the Vice President, and the members of the National Space Council.
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Contents
Preface
1. Executive Summary
1-1
2. Introduction
2-1
3. The Human Exploration Initiative
3-1
Robotic Missions
3-7
Lunar Outpost
3-13
Mars Outpost
3-23
Planetary Surface Systems
3-31
4. Reference Approaches
4-1
Reference Approach A
4-1
Reference Approach B
4-5
Reference Approach C
4-6
Reference Approach D
4-7
Reference Approach E
4-7
5. Infrastructure
5-1
Earth-to-Orbit Transportation
5-1
Space Station Freedom
5-9
Telecommunications, Navigation, and Information Management
5-18
6. Meeting Human Needs In Space
6-1
7. Science Opportunities And Strategies
7-1
8. Technology Assessment
8-1
9. National And Institutional Impact
9-1
Resource Assessment
9-1
Enhancing Management Systems
9-2
International Participation
9-6
Conclusion
9-10
Report Transmittal Letter from the Study Director
to the NASA Administrator
111
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Tables
Number Page
4-1 Key Characteristics of Reference Approaches 4-2
5-1 Space Station Freedom Growth Elements for Human Exploration 5-13
Figures
3-1 Human Exploration Initiative 3-3
3-2 Mars Global Network Mission Vehicle Concept Using Landers 3-8
3-3 Sample Return Vehicle with Local Rover 3-9
3-4 Mars Site Reconnaissance Orbiter Concept 3-11
3-5 Long-Range Mars Rover 3-12
3-6 Lunar Mission Profile 3-13
3-7 Lunar Outpost Architecture 3-15
3-8 Lunar Heavy-Lift Launch Vehicle Options 3-16
3-9 Lunar Transportation System 3-18
3-10 Lunar Transfer and Excursion Vehicle Reference Engines 3-19
3-11 Lunar Transfer Crew Module Reference Concept 3-20
3-12 Lunar Excursion Vehicle 3-21
3-13 Mars Mission Profile 3-23
3-14 Mars Outpost Architecture 3-24
3-15 Mars Heavy-Lift Launch Vehicle Options 3-25
3-16 Mars Transportation System 3-26
3-17 Mars Transfer Vehicle Crew Module 3-28
3-18 Mars Excursion Vehicle 3-29
3-19 Initial Habitat and Laboratory Modules Conceptual Design 3-31
3-20 Constructible Habitat Concept Design 3-32
3-21 Photovoltaic/Regenerative Fuel Cell (Stationary) Power System 3-33
3-22 Nuclear Dynamic Power System (100 kilowatts) 3-34
3-23 Unpressurized Manned/Robotic Rover Design Concept 3-35
3-24 Transportation Vehicle Payload Unloader Design Concept 3-36
3-25 Lunar Liquid Oxygen Production Plant Design ? 3-37
3-26 Lunar Excursion Vehicle/Mars Excursion Vehicle Servicer and
Thermal Tent 3-38
iv
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Figures
(continued)
Number
Page
5-1
Expendable Launch Vehicles
5-4
5-2
Shuttle-Derived Heavy-Lift Launch Vehicles
5-5
5-3
Advanced Launch System-Derived Heavy-Lift Launch Vehicles
5-7
5-4
Space Station Freedom Assembly Complete Configuration
5-10
5-5
Transportation Node Configurations for
Space Station Freedom Evolution
5-14,
5-15
5-6
Telecommunications Architecture for the
Human Exploration Initiative
5-22
8-1
Exploration Technology Development Strategy
8-2
V
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... And then a journey into
tomorrow, a journey to
another planet,
a manned mission to Mars.
And next, for the next century,
back to the Moon,
back to the future,
and this time, back to stay.
First, for the coming decade,
for the 1990s,
Space Station Freedom,
our critical next step in
all our space endeavor-
_ - ??=.7"rf -
1
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SECTION 1
Executive Summary
On July 20, 1989, President Bush charted a new course for the human explo-
ration of space:
". . . a long-range continuing commitment. First, for the coming decade,
for the 1990s, Space Station Freedom, our critical next step in all our
space endeavors. And next, for the next century, back to the Moon,
back to the future, and this time, back to stay. And then a journey into
tomorrow, a journey to another planet, a manned mission to Mars.
Each mission should and will lay the groundwork for the next."
With these words, the President provided specificity to the goal contained in the
1988 Presidential Directive on National Space Policy: to expand human pres-
ence and activity beyond Earth orbit into the solar system. President Bush has
answered the question "Where are we going?" We are going back to the Moon,
and then we are going to Mars. The shape of human exploration of space is
clear.
Space Station Freedom, to be followed by a return to the Moon to stay, and a
subsequent journey to Mars, will be rational extensions of the United States
civil space program. From its very beginning, that program has expanded
human activities in space. From Mercury and on through Gemini, Apollo,
Skylab, the Space Shuttle, and now, Space Station Freedom, the United States
has moved steadily into larger and more ambitious programs of ever-increasing
complexity. Each has been a logical extension of what came before. Each built
on past experience.
The rationale for exploring and settling space mirrors the spirit that has com-
pelled explorers through the ages: the human urge to expand the frontiers of
knowledge and understanding and the frontiers where humans live and work.
That is the basic reason people explore on land, sea, and in space, and has been
since humans first walked on Earth.
The imperative to explore is embedded in our history, our traditions, and our
national character. Throughout the drama of American history, our forefathers,
with resourcefulness, audacity, and ingenuity, explored a seemingly limitless
continent, using the wealth of natural resources to sustain them along the way.
Today, men and women have explored nearly every corner of the planet, even to
the bleak center of remote Antarctica. Now, in the late 20th Century and the
early 21st, men and women are setting their sights on the Moon and Mars, as
the exploration imperative propels us toward new discoveries.
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The Human Exploration Initiative
To enrich the human spirit, to contribute to national pride and international
prestige, to inspire America's youth, to unlock the secrets of the universe, and to
strengthen our Nation's technological foundation: human exploration of the
Moon and Mars will fulfill all these aspirations and more. This document pro-
vides a framework within which various approaches to meeting these national
goals may be analyzed. The basic mission sequence is clear: begin with Space
Station Freedom in the 1990s, return to the Moon to stay early in the next
century, and then journey on to Mars. An end-to-end strategy for implementing
the mission begins with robotic exploration to determine and characterize the
lunar and martian environments in which spacecraft and crew must function.
The next step is to build a permanent outpost on the Moon to support human
presence for science and exploration. In addition to the benefits to be gained
from lunar exploration for its own sake, the lunar outpost serves a vital parallel
purpose. Just a 3-day journey from Earth, the Moon provides the ideal location
to develop the systems and experience to prepare for the next step of the Initia-
tive: an outpost on Mars.
The mission objectives dictate a common profile for both outposts, beginning
with the launch of crew and cargo from Earth, with the crew on the Space
Shuttle and most of the cargo on new heavy lift launch vehicles. The destination
is Space Station Freedom, where vehicles are assembled, fueled, and serviced for
the next stage of the journey. Concepts have been developed for transfer ve-
hicles that carry the crew and cargo from Freedom and to and from lunar and
Mars orbit and for excursion vehicles that meet the crew and cargo in orbit and
bring them to the surfaces of the Moon and Mars.
Specialized concepts have also been developed for the systems that support
human explorers as they live and work on the Moon and Mars. A combined
habitation and laboratory module provides a comfortable environment for living,
recreation, and scientific research. Power system concepts ranging from pho-
tovoltaic to nuclear were developed to support increasing levels of activity and
scientific research. For travel across planetary surfaces, various rovers will be
used, some that crew members drive, and others that operate robotically. In
situ resource utilization, which would increase outpost independence from
planet Earth, may also be supported at the outposts. And finally, launch and
landing sites have been designed for the vehicles that bring crew members to
planetary surfaces and take them on the first leg of their journey home.
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Reference Approaches
The Human Exploration Initiative provides a framework within which various
elements of and approaches to human exploration of the Moon and Mars can be
examined. In order to provide the data necessary to make these types of assess-
ments, several reference approaches have been selected to determine which
parameters drive such things as cost, schedule, complexity, and program risk.
Five reference approaches were analyzed, each of which is characterized by a
particular emphasis: (1) balance and speed; (2) the earliest possible landing on
Mars; (3) reduced logistics from Earth; (4) schedule adapted to Space Station
Freedom; and (5) reduced scale. The information generated through this process
can be used as a data base for determining the appropriate scope, schedule, and
ultimate approach to be used in implementing the program. The data generated
by this process are intended to capture the range of possibilities based on our
technical understanding today, and, consequently, can be used to develop im-
plementation approaches for any number of options.
Infrastructure
The existing NASA infrastructure of Earth-to-orbit transportation systems,
Space Station Freedom, and telecommunications, navigation, and information
management systems will be an integral element of any human exploration
program. In parallel with the development of the Initiative, current and pro-
jected capabilities in these areas were assessed to determine where augmenta-
tion might be necessary.
In the area of Earth-to-orbit transportation, the Nation's current mixed fleet of
Space Shuttles and expendable launch vehicles dearly requires enhancement.
The Space Shuttle will be used to carry the crew to Space Station Freedom, but
the massive cargo flights necessary to support extraterrestrial human explora-
tion mandate launch vehicles with much greater lift capacity: approximately
60 metric tons for the lunar outpost, and about 140 metric tons for the Mars
outpost. (The current Shuttle has a capability of 17.3 metric tons.) Various
concepts for vehicles to accommodate these requirements range from Shuttle-
derived vehicles to versions of the planned Advanced Launch System. New
ground facilities will also be required to support the new vehicles.
Space Station Freedom will serve a vital role in human exploration: it will
provide the essential scientific and technological foundation for later human
missions to the planets, and it will serve as a transportation node for the mis-
sions of the Initiative. Space Station Freedom will serve as an on-orbit labora-
tory for conducting research and developing technology that is required by the
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Initiative. Freedom is the ideal location for such studies and demonstrations
because no terrestrial laboratory can adequately simulate the characteristics of
the space environment. Research will determine acceptable long-term micro-
gravity countermeasures and obtain data for the design of self-sufficient life
support systems. Freedom can advance technology by serving as a test-bed for
new lunar and Mars system developments. Further, the hardware, software,
and other technologies used to assemble and operate Freedom can be applied to
exploration vehicles and systems.
A significant feature of Space Station Freedom's design is its capability to add
pressurized laboratory and habitation modules, power generation equipment,
truss extensions, and specialized facilities. This capacity allows Freedom to
evolve gracefully as its requirements as a research facility and transportation
node increase over the lifetime of the Initiative. Freedom will evolve sequeR-
tially through four configurations to support four Human Exploration Initiative
milestones: the verification flight of the lunar transfer vehicle, expendable
lunar transfer vehicle operations, reusable lunar transfer vehicle operations,
and orbital operations in support of Mars missions.
The Human Exploration Initiative is also expected to stimulate new develop-
ments in telecommunications, navigation, and information management. These
enabling support functions monitor and control mission elements, acquire tel-
emetered data from engineering and science measurements, provide radiometric
data for navigation and video data for operations and science activities, and
provide a capacity to communicate, receive, distribute, and process information.
These functions must be provided efficiently, with human-related reliability.
Several challenges must be met: incorporating highly unattended operations for
many of the local Mars telecommunications and navigation functions, achieving
a high Mars-Earth data rate, providing robust system connectivity for manned
links, and providing an information management discipline, including stan-
dards, for use in transferring data between system nodes.
Meeting Human Needs in Space
Exploring the frontier has always been risky to the lives of the men and women
at its edges. Now, astronauts are preparing to venture for long periods of time
into environments more harsh, albeit more challenging and fascinating, than
any encountered on Earth. Fundamental differences between space and
Earth?the lack of gravity, inadequate atmospheres, deep cold, and radiation
hazards?challenge our ability to protect, nurture, and sustain the individuals
who will be the pioneers of the solar system.
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Life scientists have major responsibilities under the Human Exploration Initia-
tive: to the crew, to assure their health, productivity, and safety throughout the
mission and the postflight rehabilitation period; to the mission, to provide a
productive working environment; and to the scientific community, to advance
knowledge and understanding of human adaptation to the space environment.
Critical areas essential to support of human exploration include protection from
the radiation hazards of the space environment, of the utmost importance both
for journeying to and living on other planetary bodies Limits must be deter-
mined, and protective measures, including shielding, storm shelters, and warn-
ing systems, must be developed.
Other important health-related areas include reduced gravity countermeasures,
medical care, and life support systems. The final area that must be investigated
is one about which we have very little data: behavior, performance, and human
factors in an extraterrestrial environment.
Science Opportunities and Strategies
A long-standing policy goal of the U.S. civil space program is "to expand knowl-
edge of the Earth, its environment, the solar system, and the universe." The
Human Exploration Initiative will significantly advance scientific knowledge as
we explore the Moon and Mars and learn to use their surfaces for observatories
and laboratories. The act of exploration will provide new insights into the
natural history of the bodies visited and may lead to their use for practical
purposes. Many diverse scientific disciplines ? geology and geophysics, astron-
omy and astrophysics, human and plant physiology, and evolutionary biology ?
will be greatly enhanced. Exploring the Moon and Mars will help us in many
ways to understand the past and to look into the future of our own planet, the
solar system, and the universe.
Our first stop as we move outward from Space Station Freedom into the solar
system is the Moon, where we can find clues about the early days of Earth.
Current scientific theory holds that the Moon formed when a Mars-sized body
collided with Earth. By exploring lunar origins, we may understand not only
the formation of Earth, but also other mysteries of our solar system, such as the
tilt of Uranus and the rotational spin of Venus. The lunar surface also contains
records of cratering processes, obliterated on Earth by erosion, which may
contain clues about the extinction on Earth of entire species. Such break-
throughs may lead to profound discoveries about how life, including human life,
evolves. Studies of the Moon will also yield important information about its
natural resources, which is a vital first step in becoming a multi-planet species.
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In addition to studying the Moon itself, from the lunar surface we will look
outward. The Moon is a valuable platform for studying distant stars and galax-
ies, the rest of the solar system, and Earth itself; its quiet, stable environment
provides an excellent base for astronomy. From the Moon, we can make great
strides in understanding the universe, strides that are currently impossible on
Earth or using orbiting telescopes. And when men and women live there, scien-
tists will learn about the long-term effects on humans of a low-gravity environ-
ment; this is an essential step for longer-duration stays on Mars.
We will not stop at the Moon, because the imperative to explore will lead men
and women to Mars. The planet most like Earth, Mars offers many unique
scientific opportunities, but perhaps the most intriguing question is whether life
exists or has ever existed on Mars. Ancient river beds and channels indicate
that water once flowed on Mars and that life could have formed there. Life may
exist on Mars today in underground habitats where volcanic heating melts
ground ice, producing a warm, wet environment protected from harsh surface
conditions. Only scientists working on Mars can discover the answer to this age-
old question.
Studying Mars will also help us better understand changes on Earth, both
natural changes and those that are caused by the presence of our species. By
understanding the fascinating geological diversity on Mars, caused by drastic
global climate change, we can understand more about our own changing planet.
And exploration will not stop at the Moon and Mars. As with all pioneering
ventures, the Human Exploration Initiative will open new vistas of discovery
tomorrow that can only be imagined today.
Technology
Space is an infinite source of challenges. To send humans to explore it and use
its resources, development must begin today of new technologies in many areas,
including regenerative life support systems, aerobraking, advanced cryogenic
hydrogen-oxygen engines, surface nuclear power systems, in situ resource utili-
zation, radiation protection, and nuclear propulsion. Advancements in automa-
tion and robotics, as incorporated into these and many other technologies, will
significantly increase the effectiveness of operational systems. Perhaps the most
tangible benefits of the Human Exploration Initiative, these developments will
inevitably have spinoff applications that may profoundly affect our everyday
lives and will certainly improve our position in the increasingly technological
world economy.
During the decade of exploration from the late 1960s to the late 1970s, the
astronauts of Apollo and the machines of Viking began to explore the surfaces of
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the Moon and Mars, achievements that were made possible by revolutionary
advances in technologies and aerospace engineering capabilities. Innovative
technological solutions to challenging engineering problems will also be one of
the hallmarks of the coming era of exploration. Each step of the march to Mars
? sending robotic missions to the Moon and Mars, establishing a lunar outpost,
staging initial expeditions of humans to Mars, and ultimately emplacing an
outpost on Mars ? will drive technological and engineering expertise to greater
heights and new standards of excellence.
The Human Exploration Initiative will involve dozens of major systems and will
span decades. Technology development will be a multifaceted process that tests
the best scientists and engineers in the Nation, builds on the considerable base
that NASA has accumulated over the years, and evolves as the Initiative pro-
gresses. As mission objectives are crystallized, system concepts developed, and
applicable technologies selected for pursuit, nearer-term advanced development
programs will focus on creating individual operational systems. These advanced
development programs will in turn feed into the design, development, test, and
evaluation programs that will produce the flight hardware and software for
specific Human Exploration Initiative systems. Throughout all programmatic
phases in the life of the program, engineering ingenuity and technological inno-
vation will characterize the Initiative.
Significant technology development needs to begin as soon as possible. A bal-
anced, focused investment in technology will make possible the levels of per-
formance and the scope of operations envisioned. Technology development will
precede and foretell the major accomplishments of exploration, leading by sev-
eral years the actual missions to the Moon and Mars.
National and Institutional Impact
The Human Exploration Initiative presents our Nation with exhilarating chal-
lenges, significant opportunities, and enormous benefits into the first part of the
next century and beyond.
The Human Exploration Initiative will draw heavily on NASA's personnel,
facilities, and equipment. This resource base, the NASA institutional core
capability, is built on 75 years of research, development, and operational experi-
ence and hundreds of unique national facilities. From the National Advisory
Committee on Aeronautics to the creation of NASA in 1958 to the present, the
Agency has developed an unparalleled capability in civil space research and
development and aeronautics.
NASA will request a significant augmentation of civil service positions to sup-
port the Human Exploration Initiative. These positions will provide the
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necessary technical expertise, program management, and administrative sup-
port to meet the objectives of the Initiative. The augmentation will also enhance
the in-house work force, providing a solid balance between in-house and con-
tracted efforts.
The Human Exploration Initiative will challenge current management systems.
It presents a unique opportunity to explore and test streamlined administrative
and management processes for directing long-term, complex, highly visible U.S.
programs having significant international implications. The lessons learned
may yield invaluable guidance transferable to other important U.S. programs.
Three areas will offer the greatest opportunity to realize significant efficiencies
and enhanced effectiveness: the acquisition system, the budget process, and
human resource management systems. NASA has already begun to address
these areas internally, but some elements are outside NASA's control and will
require active support from other Government quarters.
Potential international participation in the Human Exploration Initiative is the
subject of a separate policy analysis being conducted under the direction of the
National Space Council. That analysis will assess international capabilities,
opportunities, issues, and options related specifically to the Human Exploration
Initiative. This document complements that activity by pulling together infor-
mation based on NASA's extensive experience in conducting space missions with
foreign partners.
With the growing capabilities and increasing number of other spacefaring na-
tions, the environment for international participation is considerably different
than it has been in the past. The Human Exploration Initiative offers the poten-
tial for a variety of cooperative approaches with a number of potential partners.
Different models may be appropriate for cooperation with different nations or for
different phases of the Initiative. The National Space Council will consider
these and other factors in assessing the feasibility of further international
participation.
International cooperation and the use of the Initiative to serve important foreign
policy goals are only two of its many benefits. The Initiative will also stimulate
interest in science and engineering education, strengthen our national techno-
logical capabilities, offer a wealth of new scientific knowledge, and serve as a
source of national pride.
NASA contributes to the Nation's base of technology through the transfer of
research knowledge into the public and private sectors. The application and
reapplication of this knowledge has a multiplicative effect, in which the general
increase of efficiency and wealth from the advanced knowledge spreads through-
out society. The Human Exploration Initiative will expand this contribution as
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advanced technologies are developed.
Another increasingly important benefit is the stimulus that the Human Explora-
tion Initiative can provide to education. To help ensure that the Nation has an
adequate, continuing supply of scientists, engineers, and other technical person-
nel to successfully implement the President's Human Exploration Initiative, an
aggressive and targeted educational action plan is needed. To contribute to
solving the predicted shortage of scientists and engineers, NASA will redirect
and enhance its existing aerospace education program into a new, comprehen-
sive, educational initiative entitled "Space Literacy for the 21st Century."
The educational frontiers opened by space exploration will captivate new gen-
erations of students, the scientific and technical work force of the future. This
phenomenon, combined with the other scientific and political benefits of the
Initiative, will open new horizons of achievement and will serve as a source of
national pride. Taken together, the benefits of the Initiative ? scientific under-
standing, technological advancement, motivation of our Nation's youth, and
more ? will significantly strengthen our position in the global community.
Some day it may be said that the residents of Earth had to leave their planet in
order to find it. Indeed, from space, humans first got to see their own planet,
floating in blackness above the barren moonscape like a blue and white marble.
Perhaps more than anything else, this view of Earth dramatized our planet's
uniqueness, and its fragility.
The last half of the 20th Century and the first half of the 21st Century will
almost certainly be remembered as the era when men and women broke the
bonds that bound them to Earth and set forth on a journey into space.
That journey will, in time, extend human presence throughout the solar system.
Historians will note that the Moon became a familiar place to Earthlings very
early in that period. They returned there to follow in the bootprints of Arm-
strong, Aldrin, and their Apollo colleagues, to establish an outpost for further
exploration and expansion of human activities, to Mars and beyond.
Historians will further note that the journey to expand human presence into the
solar system began in earnest on July 20, 1989, the 20th anniversary of the
Apollo 11 lunar landing when President George Bush announced his proposal
for a long-range continuing commitment to a bold program of human exploration
of the solar system.
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SECTION 2
Introduction
Human exploration of the Moon and Mars has been a sustaining vision of
the U.S. civil space program almost since its inception. With the Apollo
Program, we took our first small steps on the surface of another world; never
again would our vision be restricted to the narrow confines of Earth's bounda-
ries. Throughout the 20 years that have passed since the Apollo 11 astronauts
first landed on the Moon, the aspiration to further explore has remained a
beacon to the future.
In fact, during the Apollo era, Wernher von Braun led a task force to develop
long-range goals for the space program after Apollo: more lunar missions, a
space transportation system, a space station, and human journeys to Mars. The
Space Shuttle became the space transportation system, Skylab was the first and
Freedom will be the second space station, and several studies throughout the
years have examined concepts and identified supporting requirements for hu-
man missions to the Moon and Mars.
Events over the past several years have increased awareness of the significant
opportunities for human exploration and have provided a wealth of technical
data to support a response to the President's bold new initiative. In 1986, the
National Commission on Space published its report, 'Pioneering the Space
Frontier." The Commission was appointed by then-President Ronald Reagan
and mandated by Congress to formulate a visionary agenda to lead America's
civilian space enterprise into the 21st century. The Commission recommended
to the Nation a bold plan for the next half century in space: "To lead the explo-
ration and development of the space frontier, advancing science, technology, and
enterprise, and building institutions and systems that make accessible vast new
resources and support human settlements beyond Earth orbit, from the high-
lands of the Moon to the plains of Mars."
Later that year, then-NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher asked scientist
astronaut Sally Ride to lead a NASA-wide task force to define and evaluate
potential long-range goals for the U.S. civilian space program, building on
earlier technical studies conducted throughout NASA and outside NASA in
direct response to the Commission. The task force report, "Leadership and
America's Future in Space," was released in August 1987. The report identified
and analyzed four potential initiatives that could ensure continued civilian
space program leadership: Mission to Planet Earth, Robotic Exploration of the
Solar System, Outpost on the Moon, and Humans to Mars.
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NASA's Office of Exploration was established in June 1987 in response to the
task force's recommendation that NASA establish a focal point to fund, lead, and
coordinate studies examining potential approaches to human exploration of the
solar system, based on the Outpost on the Moon and Humans to Mars Initia-
tives. For the past 2 years, NASA has examined in detail a number of potential
strategies: Apollo-type expeditions to Mars and its moons, evolutionary plans
for permanent human presence on the Moon and Mars, and scientific observato-
ries on the Moon. The goal of this effort has been to develop a substantial base
of knowledge on technical and programmatic requirements in order to enable
the President to define a pathway for the human exploration of the Moon and
Mars.
With the President's historic announcement, that pathway has been defined.
We are going to build Space Station Freedom, and then we are going back to the
Moon and on to Mars, to continue the remarkable journey of exploration that
began more than 25 years ago when human beings first rocketed into space.
Exploration is a human imperative, one deeply rooted in American history and
its destiny. Our flag still flies on the Moon, and exploration is an endeavor in
which our Nation excels. Returning to the Moon and journeying to Mars are
goals worthy of our heritage, signalling an America with the vision, courage, and
skills essential for leadership among spacefaring nations in the 21st Century.
Now that the President has defined where we are going, the next step is to
decide how and when. To support the Vice President and the National Space
Council in this task, NASA initiated a study to develop the reference base from
which strategic options could be derived. The pages that follow describe the
results of a 90-day internal study for which NASA assembled a team of repre-
sentatives from the NASA program offices and field centers. The purpose of the
study was to examine the elements of a human exploration program, assess
current capabilities, determine ways in which the capabilities might need to be
augmented, identify areas in which new developments would be required, and
provide this information in a cohesive package to support the decision-making
process.
The process by which this information was derived began with the examination
of the basic objectives of the Human Exploration Initiative: to return to the
Moon to stay, and then to journey on to Mars, conducting significant scientific
research every step of the way. An end-to-end strategy was then developed, be-
ginning with robotic missions to characterize the environment in which humnns
and machines must function. The next steps are launching personnel and equip-
ment from Earth, exploiting the unique capabilities of human presence in low
Earth orbit aboard Space Station Freedom, transporting crew and cargo from
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Earth orbit to lunar and Mars orbits and surfaces, and developing the planetary
surface systems that support human life, extraterrestrial work, and science, and
allow a significant degree of self-sufficiency. In parallel, NASA's existing and
planned infrastructure of Earth-to-orbit transportation, Space Station Freedom,
and telecommunications, navigation, and information management was as-
sessed to determine its ability to accommodate the increased demands of the
Initiative. The synergistic areas of human needs, science, and technology were
also intensively assessed for the opportunities they bring to and derive from this
program. Finally, programmatic matters, such as resources, management
systems, international participation, and national benefits were examined to
develop a perspective embracing the broader implications of the Initiative.
Key Technical Variables Studied
? Launch vehicle size
? In-space assembly or direct to surface
? Space Station Freedom, new spaceport, or direct assembly
? Chemical, electric, nuclear, or unconventional propulsion
? Aerobraking or all-propulsive vehicles
? Expendable or reusable spacecraft
? Propellant or tank transfer
? Open or closed life support
? Zero-gravity or artificial-gravity Mars vehicle
? In situ or Earth-supplied resources
In developing a preliminary program plan for human exploration of the Moon
and Mars, results of past studies examining a wide variety of fundamental
approaches formed the basis for the selection of certain key technical parame-
ters. For the most part, these assumptions were derived from the past 2 years
of intensive trade analyses conducted as part of the human exploration case
studies. However, the case studies themselves built upon a rich heritage of
earlier studies that established a foundation of technical information from which
to draw. Combined with the strategy established by President Bush, this foun-
dation provided a starting point for the development of the Human Exploration
Initiative.
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Certain technological approaches, described in detail in Section 8 of this docu-
ment, have been proven to be the most feasible ways of building capability in the
development of an outpost either on the Moon or Mars. It is known, for ex-
ample, that some degree of in-space assembly and maintenance is necessary for
the vehicles that transport cargo and crew to their ultimate planetary destina-
tions. Trade studies of the location and function of the transportation node at
which these functions are performed have determined that Space Station Free-
dom is both a necessary and feasible approach to meeting this requirement.
Power for outpost operations, for another example, is provided in initial stages
by photovoltaic systems with regenerative fuel cells, a known and well-devel-
oped technology that is entirely adequate for early power requirements. As the
outpost develops, the next level of power generation is provided by space-based
nuclear systems. For life support, regenerative systems provide the most cost-
effective approach.
A significant trade study conducted over the past 2 years addressed the consid-
eration of balancing the need to occasionally deliver relatively large masses,
such as living quarters and utilities, to planet surfaces with the need to more
regularly deliver the smaller masses associated with logistics resupply and crew
transfer. This balance affects the sizing of launch and space transportation
vehicles, the need for vehicle reusability, and the buildup sequence of the out-
post. The balance must be arrived at considering reasonable flight rates, on-
orbit assembly capabilities, and operations scenarios.
For missions to the Moon, this balance has been found to be best achieved by
launch vehicles in the 50 to 80 metric ton payload class, which carry payloads to
Space Station Freedom for final assembly and checkout before departure for the
Moon. Although designed for no human intervention, lunar vehicles and pay-
loads will, realistically, require some hands-on activity in Earth orbit. Separate
Earth-orbit-to-lunar-orbit and lunar ascent/descent vehicles are required to
satisfy operational and abort considerations. The vehicles need to be reusable
and capable of delivering in the range of 15 to 40 metric tons to the lunar sur-
face. For Mars missions, launch vehicles having a payload capability well in
excess of 120 metric tons are required to achieve a balance between larger,
fewer launches and less assembly at Freedom and smaller, more numerous
flights that greatly complicate the assembly tasks.
An area in which a very wide range of system technology options were examined
is propulsion systems for space transfer vehicles. Approaches ranged from
conventional all-chemical propulsion to a variety of nuclear systems to solar
sails and mass drivers. What emerged from these analyses was a succinct
definition of the relative advantages and disadvantages of each approach.
2-4
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Whereas several techniques, such as nuclear and solar electric propulsion and
solar sails offered efficient transportation of large payload masses, this advan-
tage is somewhat negated by slow travel time or significant operational complex-
ity. Further study determined that the use of an aerobrake in conjunction with
chemical propulsion could reduce required initial mass in the low Earth orbit by
more than 50 percent, in addition to reducing operations costs.
Therefore, all-chemical propulsion with aerobraking was selected as the baseline
for space transfer vehicle propulsion, and this assumption was used in develop-
ing mission profiles for the Initiative. However, for transportation from Earth
orbit to Mars, nuclear propulsion shows a great deal of promise as an option for
significantly enhancing mission performance.
Solid-core nuclear thermal rockets, a mature technology that was designed,
built, and tested from 1955 to 1973, offers a savings in mass in low Earth orbit
of approximately 40 percent over chemical propulsion without aerobraking.
Chemical propulsion with aerobraking and solid-core nuclear thermal rockets
are, therefore, essentially equivalent in their advantage over chemical propul-
sion without aerobraking. However, gas-core nuclear rockets, for which concepts
were also formulated during the same time, offer the significant advantage of
reducing round-trip travel time to Mars to less than 1 year.
As the development of the Human Exploration Initiative unfolds, these and
other issues will continue to be examined to identify the most efficient ap-
proaches to the various elements of the program.
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SECTION 3
The Human Exploration
Initiative
M he overarching goal of the Human Exploration Initiative is to expand human
presence in the solar system, developing nearly self-sufficient communities
on new worlds and promoting significant advances in science and technology.
The Initiative will follow an evolutionary pathway over a 30-year horizon begin-
ning with Space Station Freedom in the 1990s, followed by a permanent outpost
on the Moon at the beginning of the next century, and culminating with Mars
expeditions that lead to a permanent martian outpost. Figure 3-1 illustrates
the relative timing of the full array of scientific and technical systems that will
enable and support this goal. These systems are discussed in detail in this and
subsequent sections.
Space Station Freedom, the first step on the pathway, will provide the essential
scientific and technological foundation for later human missions to the planets.
For example, a particularly critical factor in planning human exploration is the
determination of the physiological and psychological effects of low gravity and
long-term habitation of the space environment, which will be studied on Free-
dom. Initially, crew members will remain on Space Station Freedom for
3 months; research will focus on understanding the various mechanisms respon-
sible for adaptation to weightlessness and the physiological problems encoun-
tered upon return to Earth. Later, an extended-duration crew certification
program will prolong visits to 180 days or more and will include enhanced
physiological countermeasures for low gravity and radiation effects.
Systems developed for use on Space Station Freedom will enhance and
strengthen the technological base for human planetary exploration. Freedom
will serve as a controlled test-bed for developing and validating systems and
elements, such as habitation and laboratory modules and life support systems,
to be used later on the Moon and Mars. In addition, Freedom will support tech-
nology experiments and advanced development in mission-critical areas, such as
spacecraft assembly, servicing, and system development. When the exploration
missions begin, Freedom will become a transportation node where both lunar
and Mars vehicles will be assembled, tested, launched, and refurbished to fly
again. (Freedom's role as a transportation node is discussed in more detail in
Section 5.)
The next step in this evolutionary process will be to build a permanent outpost
on the Moon to establish human presence for science and exploration.
3-1
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Rovers and crew will explore the geology and geophysics of the Moon itself, and
rock and soil samples will be analyzed in a lunar laboratory. The unique char-
acteristics of the lunar environment make it an excellent platform from which to
conduct astronomy, physics, and life sciences research. The Moon also provides
an ideal location, just a 3-day trip from Earth, at which human beings can learn
to live and work productively in an extraterrestrial environment with increasing
self-sufficiency, using local lunar resources to support the outpost. In this way,
the lunar outpost will both advance science and serve as a test-bed for validating
critical mission systems, hardware, technologies, human capability and self-
sufficiency, and operational techniques that can be applied to further explora-
tion.
Once the lunar outpost has verified the techniques and demonstrated the sys-
tems, the next evolutionary step will be to launch the first human expedition to
Mars. Initial missions to Mars will prove the systems and techniques required
for continuing human missions and will conduct further reconnaissance of
selected landing sites. Later missions will establish a Mars outpost with the
objective of conducting science and exploration on the solar system's most Earth-
like planet, expanding mankind's sphere of influence in the solar system, and
living and working in an extraterrestrial environment with a high degree of
self-sufficiency. Valuable scientific knowledge will be gained through the search
for evidence of past and present life, exploration of the geology and geophysics of
Mars and its moons, utilization of martian resources, and studies of biological
responses in humans, plants, and animals
To examine potential approaches to building permanent lunar and Mars out-
posts, an end-to-end strategy was developed that provides a logical mechanism
for stepping through the various elements and milestones of the Initiative. The
strategy begins with the preparatory phase of robotic exploration to obtain early
scientific and technical data prior to the human exploration missions. Once the
robotic missions have satisfied this requirement, the development of permanent,
largely self-sufficient outposts on the Moon and Mars proceeds through three
progressive phases: emplacement, consolidation, and operation.
The emplacement phase emphasizes accommodating basic habitation needs,
establishing surface equipment and science instruments, and laying the founda-
tion for future, more complex instrument networks and surface operations by
testing prototypes of later systems. In the process, human explorers begin to
learn to live and work on another planetary body, conducting local geologic
investigations, performing experiments in mining the lunar soil to demonstrate
the feasibility of oxygen production on the Moon, and exnnyining the possibility
of oxygen and water extraction on Mars. By the end of the emplacement phase,
the support facilities include landing vehicle servicing equipment to prepare for
3-2
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