JPRS ID: 9487 USSR REPORT POLITICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL AFFAIRS ROUNDTABLE ON NATIONALITIES PROBLEMS AND POLICY

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JPRS L/9487
15 January 1981
- USSR Re ort
p
POLITICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL AFFAIRS
~
CFOUO 2/81)
Roundtable on Nationalities Probiems and Policy
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JPRS L/9487
15 January 1981
USSR REPORT
POLITICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL AFFAIRS
(FOUO 2/81)
ROUNDTABLE ON NATIONALTTIES PR03LEMS AND POLICY
Moscow ISTORIYA SSSR in Russian No 6, 1980 pp 23-83
[Roundtable discussion: "Toward the 26th CPSU Congress: Formation
and Development of a Historically New Community--the Soviet Peogle"]
CONTENTS
Introduction, by Academician Yu. V. Bromley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Basic Laws Governing Formation and Development of a Historically
New Community--the Soviet People, by M. I. Kulichenko 5
Discussion
M. P. Kim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Yu. V. Bromley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
A. I. Kholmogorov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
A. F. Dashdamirov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
G. I. Zimanas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
V. P. Sherstobitov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
E. V. Tadevosyan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
I. B. Berkhin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
V. S. Semenov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
L. M. I7robizheva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
' M. N. Guboglo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6~+
From the Editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o . . . . 68
- a - [IZI - USSR - 35 FOUO]
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Defining the most i.mportant directions for development of
scientific research in the social sciences, the 25th CPSU Congress
in3icated the need "for studyi-~~g the theoretical problems of
developed socialism, the laws of its transformation into co~nunism,
~ and the mechanism of their action and utilization."*
Formation and development of a historically new community--the
Soviet people--is one of the most important problems of mature
socialist society in our country. A round table sponsored by
the editor's office of this journal jointly with the Scientific
_ Council for Nationalities Problems, Social Sciences Section, USSR
Academy of Sciences Presidium was devoted to its discussion on
19 December 1979.
After considering the extent to which this problem has been
studied, the editor's office suggested a number of issues for
! discussion, central among which was the fundamental laws governing
formation and development o~ a historically new community--the
Soviet people. M. I. Kulichenko prepared a report on this topic.
R,epresentatives of different social sciences studying the histor i-
Cally new community--philos~pners, historians, ethnographers--
took part in the discussion.**
The discussion was opened by USSR Academy of Sciences Corresponding
Member I. D. Koval'chenko, editor in chief of the journal ISTORIYA
, SSSR. The discussion was moderated by Academician Yu. V. Bromley,
chairman of the Scientific Council for Nationalities Problems,
Social Sciences Section, Presiditun of the uSSR Academy of Sciences.
TY~e proceedings of the round table are published below.
*"Materialy XXV s"yezda IC2SS" [Proceedings of the 25th CPSU Congress], Moscow,
1977, p 214.
**A ntm~ber of comrades who were unable to attend the discussion sent texts of their
statements: G. 0. Zi.manas, eciitor in chief of the Lithuanian SSR Communist Party
Centra'1 Commi.ttee journal K04SM[dA1IST; V. S. Semonov, editor in chief of the journal
VOPROSY FILOSOFII; M. N. GLT~~glo.
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INTRODUCTION
Academician Yu. V. Bromley
Our round-table discussion is devoted to an extremely important problem--"Formation
and ~evelopment of the Soviet People as a~Historically New Community". As we know,
real socialism has shown itself to all the world as a model of hamwnious develop-
ment and blossoming of nations, a model of truly humanitarian resolution of the
nationalities issue, this most sensitive issue of mankin~'s history. It is no
accident that it was mainly in the first socialist state, in the earth's first
society of developed socialism that an international co~nunity of a new sacial
essence--the Soviet people--evolved. Formation and development of this community
- in our country is an achievement of socialism, or:e carrying a tremendous ideological
charge. The Soviet experience of resolving the nationalitiers issue consequently
_ requires more-substantial analysis and publicity. It follows from this experience
that socialism means internationalism, it means friendship and solidarity of peoples,
it means bringing nations closer together at the peak of their development. And in
light of the CPSU Central Commnittee decree on ideological issues, we must intensify
our work and publicity on the premise that socialism represents a national world
and national cooperation as substitutes for national isolation, enmity, and war
generated by the bourgeois way of life. We are also encouraged to do so by the
CPSU Central Committee decree "On the 110th Anniversary of Vladimir I1'ich Lenin's
~irth", which lays specia.i emphasis on the significance of embodying Lenin' princi-
ples of proletarian socia~.ist internationalism within the party.
Our social. scientists did much in recent years to study the Soviet people as a
historically new community. Historians have doubtlessly made a significant contri-
bution to this. However, far from all aspects of the problEm have been sufficiently
developed and, moreover, there is still much that is debatable in their illumination.
This was recently demonstrated once again by review articles on the problems of the
historically new community in Soviet historiography, published in the journal
VOPROSY ISTORII (No 4, 1979), and by the collective works "Osnovnyye napravleniya
izucheniya natsional'nykh protsessov v SSSR" [Basic Directions of Research on National
Processes in the USSR] (Moscow, 1979).
The status of historical research on the issuP was doubtlessly considered when the
editorial board of the journal ISTORIYA SSSR tentatively proposed the following
set of issues:
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the basic laws governing development of the Soviet people as a historicaZly new
coaQnunity (M. I. Kulichenko prepared a speci.al report on this topic; it will serve
as the starting point for our discussion);
growth of the role of the Soviet people as a society undergoing communist development;
~ internationalization of society in the USSR;
consolidation of the whole people's character of the Soviet state and development
of a historically new community;
changes in the social class structure of the society, and the progress of the
~ historically new community;
~ deve.lopment of the self-consciousness of the Soviet people as a historically new
community.
It stands to reasnn that this is only the m~st tentative list of issues, one that
could hardly cover the topic of interest to us fully. We may quite well name a
number of other important problems requiring our attention. In this connection
we cannot but welcome the participation of representatives of contiguous disciplines,
philosophers and lawyers in particular, in this discussion.
Integrated, systemic examination of the phenomenon of interest to us is extremely
; important in general. Of course, this systems approach cannot at all be boiled down
i to simple categori~ation of all that has been done in the effort to study the Soviet
~ people. As we know, this approach presupposes, first of all, revelation of the
~ mutual relationship existing among individual components of the phenomenon under
analysis. And this is extremely important, since the Soviet people are not a simple
~ sum of certain properties and characteristics, but rather they are a single whole,
the individual components of which interact. Willingly or not, when we analyze
this problem as specialists we often break this single whole down. As an example
we believe it significant to penetrate more deeply into the dialectics of the re-
iati~nship between that which is international and that which is national in Soviet
soci.ety, into the mutual relationships existing among its components, such as social
structur~ and anti-Soviet culture, an3 so on.
~ As we know, evezy system is hierarchical, with all of its elements subordinated in
a certain way. I think that this has a direct bearing on the topic of our discussion.
It would be no less significant to determine the mutual relationship existing between
a system and its environment--that is, to discriminate the factors existing as the
prerequisites of its operation, and its immediate characteristics and properties.
It wou~d also be important to compare the syste~ of interest to us, "the Soviet
people", with other systems kindred to it, such as "Soviet society" and "the Soviet
way of life". In other words we must defi.ne the relationship existing between the
corresponding concepts, mainly ir. an effort to "divorce" them, since we often use
them (especialJ.y the first two) as synon}~ns, which in many ways tnakes the very use
of different terms meaningless.
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In order to reveal the typical, regularly encountered traits of any system, it
woula naturally be very important for us to compare the system with similar systems,
to subject them to comparative-typ ological analysis. The following question unavoid-
ably arises in this connection: Are there analogs of the systems of inteXest to us,
and if there are none, where would we most likely expect their arisal? Th2r~ is also
another problem: We usually do everything we can to emphasize the specific, unique
nature of the historically new com�nunity, but do we not consequently understate the
universal significance of this community, the universal and natural arisal of both
itself and formations of its kind?
Every system is an element of another larger system, a system at a taxonomically
higher level. The question as to the relationship between formation and development
of the Soviet people on one hand and i.ntegrative processes occurring within th~
- system of countries in the socialist fraternity on the other is also unavoidable
in this connection. ~
The Soviet people are a dynamic system that changes with time. And :,aturally, the ~
very process of this system's formation and development requires attention. However,
researchers do not seem sufficiently agreed yet as to the relationship this process
~ has to time.
- Finally, it would appear very i.mportant to examine the phenomenon of interest to
us within the context of world history. Qnly such an examination would permit us
co fully reveal the laws governin~ arisal of the Soviet people as a historically new
- community, and the place and significance of this community on the road to the
- future unity of mankind. ~
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~
BASIC LAZQS GOVERNING FORMATION AND I3E`IELOPMENT OF A
HISTORICALLY NEW COMMUNITY--THE SOVIET PEOPLE
M. I. Kulichenko
The most important distinguishing characteristics of mature socialist society in
the USSR include full freedom of action of its laws, the advantages revealed in all
spheres of life, the organic integrity and dynamic nature of the social system, its
political stability, and inviolable unity. Z'he evolution of these characteristics
can be traced most clearly in the formation and development of the Soviet people as
~ a historically n~:w community. The methods we have today for gaining an understandi.ng
i of all aspects of li�e and mutual relationships among classes, social groups, nations,
i and nationalities, and the entire society's progress require recognition of the fact
I that a new co~n"vnity has arisen, that it is now functioning, and that it will continue
ta progress. The accountability re~rt of the CPSU Central Co~nittee to the 25th CPSU
Congress stated: "Our basic premi.se has been and continues to be that a historically
I new community has evolved here--the Soviet people, representing an inviolable union
~ of the working class, the peasantry, and the intelligentsia led by the working class,
~ and friendship among all of the country's nations and nationalities.i1 This premise
has especially great significailce to analysis of the historically new community's
development.
The study of the Soviet people as a historically new community is proceed~.ng in an
area of overlap of several sciences--mainly history, philosophy, and scientific
communism. Inasmuch as the Soviet people are a couQnunity having a past, present,
and future, historians study the stages of its formation, function, and development,
~ the associated processes and phenomena, and the role of the laboring masses. Philo-
sophers analyze the theoretical aspects of the essence of the historic;ally new
community, and the methodological criteria of its study.
I wrote an article entitled "Formation and Development of the Soviet People as a
Historically New Community" devoted to research on the essence of the new society,
and tc the stages of its formation and development (VOPROSY ISTORII, No 4, 1979).
This report is an attempt to generalize the experience of researcli on a new aspect
_ of the problem--the l.aws governing formation and development of the historically
new community. These laws are naturally interpreted to be an inherent part of a
single system of laws respnnsible for development of all Soviet society.
Soviet scholars studying the laws governing arisal and development of the histori-
cally new community rely upon fundamental documents of the Communist Party, mainly
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its Program, decisions of the 24th and 25th CPSU conqresses, CPSU Central Committee
decrees, and works written by CPSU Central Comcaittee General Secretary, Chairman
of the Presidi~n of the USSR Supreme Soviet L. I. Brezhnev. It should be made
plain in this regard that while the tasks associated with revealing the essence of
the ScSviet peo~le, the phases of their developrnent, and their social role have
basically been illuminated in the literature, for practical purposes we have only
just begun defining the laws governing ~e new community' s formatiqn and development.
The premises contained in party dociunents and the conclusions of scientists are the
foundation for further work on this extremely important problem. We must of course =
admit that the views different scientists hold on the laws governing formation and
development are sometimes contradictory and, most importantly, that an adequate
systems approach has not yet been applied to these views: For the moment, we are
still seeki.ng the correct criteria of analysis.
Defining the criteria of analysis is central and fundan~ental to research on this
problem. :Analyz'ng forn~ation and operation of history's new ~ommunity, Soviet
scientist:s have already noted a direct tie between these processes and mani�esta-
tion of ~~ther laws of our society's development, of the development of all world
sociali.sm. Thus P. N. Fedoseyev posed a question extremely important to the
~theory of scientific communism and to practical affirmation of the new formation:
To w,hat ex*~:.t have rhe general laws ancl trends of socialist and communist develop- _
ment ref)ected themselv~s in the historical experience of formation of the Soviet
peop~~.e as a form of consolidation of nations and nationalities inhabiting our
country; in particular, what are the unique features in the development and fate
of socialist nations in single-nationality states?"2 Answering this question, he
devoted much attention to revealing the profound dialectics of the gra3ual wearing
away of differences between the basic social groups, and further unification of all
nations and nationalities in the USSR. Fedoseyev called these processes the starting
point for analysis of the historically new community, ones providing a possibility
for demonstrating the fundamental difference existing between socialist international-
ization and internationalization of life in capitalism.
This report will examine the following issues: the description, contained in CPSU
documents and in works by Soviet scholars, of the objective principles governing
forn?ation and development of the Soviet people as a community, the sys~ern of laws
governing the historically new community's operation and progress.
_ * * *
For practical purposes, research on the laws governing formation and development
of the Soviet people a~ a historically new community did not begin until the early
1970's. The first reference to tlle object.ive basis of these processes was contained
in the proceedings of the 24th CPSU Congress: In the years of socialist development
in our country, a historically new community of�people arose--the Soviet people.
New, harmonious relations between classes and social groups, and between nations _
and nationalities--relations of friendship and cooperation--were born in joint labor, -
in the struggle for socialism, in the battles in its defense."3 The CPSU Central
Comnittee decree on preparations for celebration of the 50th anniversary of the USSR,
_ adopted 16 February 1972, emphasized the inevitability of arisal of a new community--
the Soviet people--in the course of development of socialism and com4nunism in the
USSR. "It was formed," the decree states,"on the basis of public ownership of the
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means of production, and unity of economic, sociopolitical, and cultural life,
Marxist-Leninist ideology, and the interests and communist ideals of the working
' cl;~ss."4 The premise containedin the decree that "~e closest unity, full blossoming,
and continuous growing together of all nations and nationalities of the Soviet Union
are th~ prod~uct of the nature of our structure, representing an objective law of
socialism's devslopment"5 also has a direct relationship to the laws governing
de ~elopment of the new community. In his report on the 50th anniversary of the USSR,
L. I. Brezhnev emphasized that arisal of the historically new community is the
result of profound and all-embracing changes in all spheres of life, that it is
"a unique sort of general result of those economic and sociopolitical a~.terations
- which our country underwent in half a century."6
Researchers followed different roads in their effort to determine the laws governing
formation of the historically new community and its progress: Some concentrated
their attention on a general description, on the elements in common between the
laws of all society and of the historically new community; others tried to distinguish
laws specific to the Soviet people; a third group--contained within the lattter--
described the laws governing formation of the ne~a community, and a fourth group
concentzated on the laws of its development.
Works by Academician M. P. Kim made a significant contri.bution to the general
description of the laws governing formation and development of the Soviet people as
a historically new community: "The Soviet People--a Historically New Community,"
"Z'he Soviet People--a Socialist Community of Laborers" and, ~ng others, the
collective monograph, prepared under his guidance, "Sovetski1 narod--novaya istori-
cheskaya obshchnost' lyudey" [The Soviet People--a Historically New Comtr?unity of
Peop le] (Nbscow, 1975). ~'here is much significance in particular in the scholar's
conclusion that arisal and development of the Soviet people i.s "the first represen-
tation of socialist collectivism of people," and that it is "a natural consequence
of the victory of the October Revolution and an affirmation of the socialist social
structure in the USSR."~ Emphasizing that social and clas:~ factors played the
leading role in formation of the new community, With national and international
factors playing a subsidiary role, M. P. Kim wrote at ~he same time that "all
progressive trends in the life of nations and in their relations were embodied and
enjoy further development..."e in this ~~o~~ity.
M. P. Kim was the first in Soviet literature to suggest and fully document the
premi.se that the subjective factor played a somewhat larger role in forntati.on and
development of the Soviet people than in fcrmation of nations and dete~ination of
their life.9 This was also a topic of discussion by USSR Academy of Sciences
Corresponding Member Ts. A. Stepanyan, who, describing the role the Soviet people
"as the pioneers in creation of a communist formation"10 and turning his attention
to the great role imparted in the literature to the subjective factors in their _
relationship to the objective factors associatPd with formation of the historically
new community, concurrently stated the thought that it would be impermi.ssible to -
divorce "the subjective factor from objective 1aws. ~~11
Basic trends in the development of the Soviet people were noted in other studies:
unification of all classes and social groups, nations and nationalities, and all
- laborers on the basis of socialism, deepening internationalization and embodi.ment
of CPSU policy; fu~ther reinforcement of their social and international unity in
the process of co~nunist development.12 -
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Describi.ng the role of subjective factors in formation ana development of the
historically new community in the early 1970's, M. P. Kim and N. S. Shevtsov offered
a thorough description of the guiding role played bv the CPSU in this process.l3
The works of the early 1970's emphasiaed the need for tying in the laws of the
historically new community with the laws governing development of our entire social-
ist society and of mankind in general; they noted that formation and development of
the Soviet people is an inherent part and a natural phenomenon of affirn~ation of
socialism and development of com~nunism in the Soviet Union, that the latter's
- creation has been influenced by the continually growing world trend of breaking
down national barriers, gradually erasing national differences, assimilating nations,
increasing the power and scope of the whole world revolutionary process, and es-
pecially reinforcing and dev~eloping cooperation among socialist countries.l4
Also turning his attention to the laws governing formation and development of the
Soviet people, A. F. Dashdamirov was one of the first who felt it necessary to
separate these laws into three groups: a) improvement of social relations, consoli-
dation of social unity, and development of social homogeneity; b) two trends in
natianal development, the processes of socioeconomic and cultural integration of ,
the society; c) growth of the Soviet state's role in further consolidation of the
historically new community.15 In 1973 I. P. Tsameryan suggested the idea that the
laws governing deve~~nment of the historically new ~ommunity and of the Soviet
multinational state are m~a~ually associated.l6
Practicall_y all researchers who dealt to one extent or another with the laws ~
governing formation and development of the historically new community relied upon
the premise stated in the CPSU Program that the common characteristics of nations
and nationalities that have already evolved and that are inevitably arising will be
reinforced. This is what was said by P. N. Fedoseyev, A. G. Yegorov, M. P. Kim,
Yu. V. Bromley, E. A. Bagramov, V. P. Sherstobitov, S. T. Kaltakhchyan, V. I.
Zateyev, and other writers. A number of researchers turned a great deal of atten-
tion the fact that changes in the relatianship between that which is national and ;
that which is i.nternational were to be expected. In particular, Zateyev wrote the
following on this issue in 1972: "Under the influence of the development of the
whole--the Soviet people, a~id in accordance with their inte rnational nature,
national groups existing as components, as inherent parts of this whole lose some
of their previous traits and acquire new international traits. This is a manifest17
tion of the law of gradual transformation of the national into the international.
We could have agreed with this statement, had the author inanediately emphasized that
on transforming into something international, that which is national dces not cease
to exist.
There appears to be some merit. to M. N. Rosenko's attempts at viewing formation
of the Soviet people as the result of the action of the law of general sociology
that "the forms of history's communities are the Product of the level of development
and the nature of the mea.ns of production."18 However, R,~senko feels that "the
developmental trends observed in socialist nations and the laws governing develop-
ment of the 5oviet people are simply different aspects of the same process of
improvement in national relations within developing couanunist society."19 The
author obviously arrived at tnis approach by incorrectly rejecting the concept of
- the Soviet people as a community basQd or~ social and class factors.
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� A number of researchers tried to reveal specific laws governing formation and
development of the Soviet people as a historically new co~nunity. Thus in 1972
L. M. Slavin included, among such laws, growth in social homogeneity, a growing ,
' closer of nations, their cooperation, consolidation of the Soviet multinational
state and the international foundations of the culture of the Soviet people,
spread of Russian language as an international language, reinforcement of the
international foundations of the culture of the Soviet people, intensified develop-
ment of the scientific philosophy of the laborers, ar.d consolidation of general
Soviet traits in their psychology. He calls these laws specific to deveiopment of
the new community, operating in close associati~n with laws such as the fundamental
law of economics, the law of planned and pxoportionate clevelopment of the national
economy, and so on.20 In principle, the same approach to solving the problem is
typical of the point of view of M. S. Dzhunusov and G. A. Mel'nikova. They believe
that the new community, arising and existing on the basis of classe~, social
groups, nati~ns, and nationalities, and being inseparably associated with them,
developed and functioned in accordance with intrinsic objective laws such as:
friendship among peoples, their socialist cooperation, assistance, and mutual
assistance, accelerated mutual enrichment, and unity of social will and action.
In this case special emphasis is laid upon friendship among peoples as a law of
"formation and development of the Soviet people."21 I believe, however, that
neither friendship among peoples nor the other above-mentioned factors respons~le
for formation and development of the historically new co~nunity can be viewed as
"intrinsic" laws of the Soviet people, since they are in fact an embodiment of the
- tendency for nations and nationalities to draw together, typical of all society.
But being an expression of a high qualitative level of development of national
relations, friendship among peoples is siunultaneously a prerequisite for and a
factor of the formation and development of the historically new community. We can
apparently even suggest that friendship among peoples is an aspect of the very -
essence of this commL:nity,of its international unity. Its formation "basically
proceeds in conjunction with formation of the Soviet people, but in a number of
aspects it does precede formation of th~ new comnunity, being a prerequisite of such
formation."22
Discussing the question as to whether or not cooperation among peoples of the Soviet
Union is a specific law governing development of the historically new community,
we should first consider the description given to such cooperation by L. I. Brezhnev:
"Perpetual, constantly stronger cooperation among peoples has become a vital prere-
quisite, an important foundation for erertion of a new society in our country."23
Research by V. S. Semenov on the mutual relationship between the dialectics of the
Soviet people's formation and the dialectics of the development of the society's
social and natural structures was interesting. Semenov meticulously analyzed growth
in the role played by the common traits of classes and nations in acceleration of
the new community's formation, and the role played by growing social homogeneity in
the new co~nunity's development.24
A. I. Kholmogorov made several important observations concerning the laws governing
formation and development of the historically new co~nunity. In Aarticular he con-
cluded that the arisal and function of the Soviet people is "a direct result of
internationalization."25 Kholmogorov was the first to isolate psychosocial laws
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from the entire system of laws gcverning the new community' s formation and progress .
In 1970-1972 he suggested and substantiated the thesis that formation of the new
community's psychology is the most important law governing its development.
Kholmogorov ulso offered an apt treatment of the fnrmation and reinforcement, in
the 5oviet people, of consciousness and a sense of belonging to the historic~lly
new community,26 though isolation of this law as an independent one seems groundless
to me.
A number of researchers have revealed that transformati.on of social consciousness,
including arisal of international consciousness in the course of formation and
development of the new community, is to be expected. However, there have been some
disagreements in the interpretation of social consciousness.27 The essence of inter-
national consciousness existing as an inherent part of social consciousness has
been discussed, as has its role in the historically new com~unity's progress and -
in education of the new man.L8
Researchers have attempted special examinations of the laws governing formation of
the historically new community. An all-union scientific conference organized by
the USSR Ministry of Higher and Secondary Special Education was devoted to this
question in 1972. Unfortunately this conference was unable to increase, in any
significant way, our knowledge on this problem, since the participants did not go
beyond the point of recognizing that arisal of tY:e Soviet people was to be expected.
Only a report by E. A. Bagramov was devoted to this question.~ He ~sserted in parti-
cular that: "Formation of the Soviet people as a canonunity of historic proportions
means, first of all, achievement of social unity of all classes, social groups,
nations, and nationalities, which is the natural result of the development of
socialism, and whi.ch is a funciamentally new trait of social life in developed
- socialism."29
- A number of researchers have turned their attention to the direct tie between for-
mation of the Soviet people and the fundamental social transformations occurring in _
our country, characterizing them as prerequisites, fact~rs, and so on. Thus
G. A. Bat'yan treats transformations occurring in the socia~:y's government and
its political life, equalization of the developme:ital conditions enjoyed by the
republics, and intensifi~ation of the social homogeneity of nations as factors
governing formation of the Soviet people. 30 "~)ne o" the most important l.aws govern-
ing formation of the Soviet people as a historicaily new community of peop?.e,"
L. M. Slavin wrote in 1972, "was consolidation of nations and nationalities on the
basis of socialism."31 I. P. Tsamaryan essentially repeated the same idea later on32
Sometimes, of course, the role of national factors is exaggerated. As an example
M. N. Rosenko wrote in 1973 that the Soviet people arose in the course of formation
of socialist nations, and evolved as a new community of people when the former process
ended; moreover in her opinion "the di~lectics of the development of socialist
nations--their blossoming and growing together, viewed as a fundamental law of
national life under socialism--also simultaneously predetermined the nature of
development of the Soviet people.~a33
It would be suitable to dwell in greater detail--as a supplement ~:c:. what was said
above--on the way scholars descri.be the laws governing development uf the Soviet
people as a historically new community. M. P. Kim wrete that this development
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- "marks intensification of the political, economic, cultural, and ideological
unity of nations, and more-intensive development of common traits in their
spiritual countenance and way of life. This process of integration is proce~ding
in combination with further development of all nations, making it possible for
theni to reveal their creative potentials more fully and make an optimum contribution
to ove rall cooperation."34 In the opinion of S. T. Kaltakhchyan the objective
process of the Soviet peogle's development is proceeding "on the basis of a further
, drawing together of laboring classes and social groups, of inental and physical
_ labor, of the levels of production, of culture and life in the city and country-
side, and of nations and nationalities. All social processes in the USSR are
mutually associated, and they promote further development of history's newcommunity-- _
- the Soviet people."35 V. P. Sherstobitov was one of the first to turn his attention
to the fact that "the social homogeneity of the Soviet people, a society of historic
proportions, is growing continuously, and processes strengthening their internal
unity are proceeding intensively. "36 P. Pi. Rpgachev an:~ M. A. Sverdlin also de-
scribe consolidation of the unity of the Soviet people as something to be expected:
"The category 'the Soviet people' precisely and most adequately expresses the
essence of the i~nediate task of strengthening developed socialism and promoting
development of communism--achievement of our society's total unity with respect to
social classes and nations."37 Discussing development of the Soviet people,
A. V. Likholat validly emphasized the decisive significance of improving the
country's unifie d national economic complex, equalizing the economic life of all
nations and nationalities, constantly drawing classes and social groups close to-
gether, and surmounting the differences between the city and the countryside, and
between mental and physical labor.38 The methodological approach to solving this
_ problem was validly worded as follows in the literature by experts on the problem:
a) If we are to reveal the dialectics of the new community's formation and development,
- we must consider the entire set of internal and external factors; b) formation of
the Soviet people is not a spontaneous process, being instead a scientifically con-
trollable process; c) the USSR's experience in formation and development of a new com-
munity is a model to laborers of all the world for embodiment of internationalism
within the country and fulfillment of international duty.39
Certain erroneous viewpoints have also been suggested in the effort to determine
the laws governing development of the Soviet people as a historically new community.
As an example V. I. Kozlov wrote: "Today, the Soviet people are doubtlessly not
a national but an international, superethnic community of people. However, 'the
Soviet people' already satisfy almost all of the characteristics of. a nation....~~40
The words "already satisf y" cannot be interpreted in any ~ther way than as the
author' s stand on the trend in the new community's development: The community already
satisfies almost all characteristics of a nation, and even more of them in the
future. Yu. I. Semenov worded the same idea even more definitely: "The general
trend in development of the Soviet people as a historically new comnunity of people
can be defined as maximum blossoming of those characteristics which make it more
like a nation and, correspondingly, withering away and disappearance of those which
make it different from a nation--that is, as movement along the road of its gradual .
transformation into a single socialist nation."41 The processes that can actually -
be witnessed in the course of the historicallv new community's development during
the time of its existence are a most serious argument against this point of view,
and they prove that such trends do not exist in Soviet reality. Nbreover they
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cannot exist, inasmuch as transformation of the Soviet people into a single nation
would mean displacement of all presently existing nations and nationalities out of -
the arena of history. This would contradict the very nature of mature socialism,
in the soil of which the historicall; r~ew co~�aunity ended its evolution and is now
functioning. �
Despite certain mistakes and inadequate depth of analysis of the laws governing
development of the Soviet people as a historically newcAmmunity, th~ gEneral direction
of this analysis and its theoretical and methodological grounds zvere defined
correctly on the whole by these researchers, who concentrated mainly on characteri-
' zing constant reinforcement of the new society's unity. "In the process of commu-
nist development, the social and international unity of Soviet society undergoes
further consolidation," wrote E. V. Tadewsyan in spring 1972. "This is the most
general and dominant law of development of the Soviet people as a historically new
human community."``2 Consequently the author believes this law to be comr,ton to
both all of Soviet society and the historically new community. The same idea was
ventured by M. N. Rosenko: Formation of economic, political, spiritual and, in a
- certain aspect, linguistic unity of the Soviet peoples is precisely what characteri-
zes the formation and development of the Soviet people as a historically new human
community."43 A. F. Dashdamirov later accepted the same point of view: "The genera~
trends in development of the Soviet people can be defined as social-integrative~44
internationalizing processes confirming new international forms of social life.
In descri.bing the laws of continuous consolidation of the historically new commu-
- nity's unity, we must place our emphasis not only on the end result of certain
processes, but also o n the ~rocesses themselves--that is, on formation and consoli-
dation of unity. After all, the most important action of the laws governing develop- I
ment of the Soviet people is to constantly improve, multiply, and update social
ties that make up the essence of the historically new comnunity, and which are the
core of its consolidation and development, and of growth in the role it plays in
development of communism.
As with any social phenomenon, the nature of the Soviet people viewed as a histori-
cally new community, enrichment of its content, and growth of its social role are
predetermined by three groups of factors: a) the legacy of the past, the achieve-
ments of the present, and the rudiments of the future; b) the relationship between
objective and subjective factors in social life; c) combination of internal develop-
mental processes with the action of external circumstances. Z'he basic laws govern-
ing formation and development of the historically new community evolved in our
country could not be defined without meticulous consideration of both the very
nature of this coc~nunity and }he factors named above.
The laws that are responsible for arisal of the historically new co~unity and that
- lie at the basis of its development represent a very complex system. Z'hey include:
general sociological laws; laws and trends operating over the course of several
formations; laws of one particular formation, in this case the first phase of
communism or, more accurately, socialism in general and developed socialism in
_ particular; specific laws governing development of the historically new coaununity--
the Soviet peopl~ The laws and the trends of their manifestation are embodied
within the life of the society, in a sense superimposing over one another, in-
- fluencing each other mutually, and interacting. The extent to which the laws
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manifest themselves depends on many factors and, of course, mainly on the maturity
of their objective, material foundation. At the same time the extent to which
these laws are recognized by people and the ability the latter have for utilizing
them in behalf of progress also play a very important role.
As with other human communities,. formation and development of thp Soviet people
followed a number of general sociological laws:
the dependence of existing human communities upon the level of development of pro-
ductive forces and of the corresponding productive relations, and the means of
production of material blessings;
manifestation of the world-historic trend of gradual and continual enlargement of
hum~n community, this being the most important prerequisite of mankind's progress;
the action of laws governing growth i.n the role of the popular masses i.n history.
Researchers differ i.n their points of view on the general processes of integration
and differentiation inherent to all world history, and on their relationship.
. M. P. Kim and Yu. V. Bromley validly emphasize the Marxist-Leninist premise that
integrative processes play the dominant role in mankind's social progress.45
?here are other points of view as well: Some scholars understate differentiation
processes,46 while others assert the history of mankind is the history of ever-
deeper social-class and social-ethnic differentiation of people.i47
Experts have also stated the opinion that the world-historic trend of breaking down
ethnic barriers first and then national barriers, leadi.ng in the end to natural
integration of peoples, supposedly reveals itself only in capitalism and socialism.
This is not so. The theory of scientific comnunism states that such a trend is
inherent to the entire history of mankind. As an example II~gels noted its action
during the time of the Great Migration of Peoples, describing it as "one of the
most powerful means"48 of social progress. This progress, he wrote, is impossible
without "a few delicate national flowers"49 being trampled in the course of history.
In this case, in his opinion, "it is no small benefit that in most cases different
politically constituted nations have certain foreign elements in their composition,
which creates a bi.nding link with their neighbors and adds diversity to the somewhat
m~notonous homogeneity of national character."50 Basing himself on the premises of
Marx and Engels, V. z. Lenin described the action of the trend, discov~ered by them,
~ in imperialism as being inherent to its nature. This trend, he wrote, has a world-
historic character, "it is manifesting itself more and more powerfully," and "it is
one of the greatest motive forces transforming capitalism into socialism."51
The group of laws that manifest themselves only within the limits of the capitalist
socioeconomic formation and that part of the communist socioeconomic formation that
has thus far come into being also have important significance to formation and
_ development of the new community. They include, first of all: a) internationali-
zation of all aspects of social life and b) the closely associated action of the
world law of capitalism and the world law of socialism in the life of nations and
in the mutual relations, which are reflected in the trend toward free, independent
development and in the trend toward expansion and deepening of mutual ties among
peoples. We should turn our attention to two circinnstances in this case. First,
~
I
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unjustified identification of internationalization with the coming together of
nations is encountered in the literature. Zb be m~re ac:curate, we would of course
have to say that such identification is justified, but only partially, in applica-
tion a narrow sphere of national relations. Being a product of the development of
produc~ive forces in general, and being intensified by the modern sciesitific-
technical revolution, internationalization embraces literally all spheres of the
society's life, and not only national relations. Of interest in this connection
is the following idea stated by USSR Academy of Sciences Corresponding Member
I. T. Frolov: "The process of internationalization represents not only development
of relations between nations..., but also the more-general sociohistoric processes
at both the worldwide scale and within the national framework. It is represented
in our country by the arisal and development of a historicallv new human community--
the Soviet people."52 Second, discussing the processes of universal internationali-
zation and the world law governing the action of two trends in the dev~elopment of
nat ions and in their mutual relations, we cannot forget that the si.milarity i.n
capitalism and in socialism ends with the dependence upon general sociological
fac tors and the direction of their action: They differ fundamentally in their
soc ial content and consequences, and their force of action and influence upon ~
progress .
In addition to those named above, some other, autwardly similar but in essence
strictly differing trends are typical of.capitalism and socialism: growing collec- ;
tivization of the means of production and labor; continual growth of the working
class's leading role and of the significance of its union with all laborers; the
r
inc reasingly greater influence of the ideas of Marxism-Leninism upon the conscious-
nes s of the best work:ers and all progressive strata of society. These trends are ,
in a sense the material, sociopolitical, and ideological base of the society's
constantly growing unity, and of arisal of new communities and people or funda-
mental renovation of previously existing ones.
In addition to a higher level of development of productive forces, another ad-
~ vantage of one social structure over another, in this case of capitalism in compari-
son with feudalism and of socialism in relation to capitalism, is enlargement of
existing com~nunities, which also reflects itself in the economic, social, political,
and spiritual ties of the people. V. I. Lenin wrote that while the capitalist
community is being torn apart by conflicts, "it increases the population's need
for unity, for unification, and it imparts a special character to these formations,
comparable with forcnations of the past."S3 According to Lenin's time-tested con- -
clusion, for the very same primary reason socialism "harbors gigantic forces within
itself, and...mankind has now made a transition to a new stage of development
bearing unusually magnificent possi.bilities."54
Marxism-Leninism teaches us that the key problem in formation of every new socio-
economic community is creation of new social ties and relations, embodied both in
the individual himself and in the entire human co~unity. V. I. Lenin also foresaw
the inevitability of historically new communities. Socialism, he wrote, "is
creating new, higher forms of human community, in which the lawful demands and
progressive desires of the laboring masses of all nationalities will be satisfied
for the first time through international unity, on the condition that the present
national barriers are annihilated.'~55
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Consequently the advantages of socialism over capitalism manifest themselves in
the immeasurably gfeater unity of the existing comanunities, and in arisal of new
communities, owing to which we witness the action of a group of laws inherent only
to socialist society and manifesting themselves in formation and development of the
- Soviet people as a historically new co~unity. These laws may include, for example, -
elimination of differences between the city and countryside and between mental and
physical labor, attainment of friendship among nations and its transfoxmation into
the motive force of the society's development, and, at the stage of mature sociali~sm-
attainment of a new level of maturity in the union of the working class, the
peasantry, and the intelligentsia, and greater social homogeneity of the society
and international unity of the nations and nationalities composing it.
Communis:. civilization is unique in that objective laws manifest themselves here
to a significantly greater extent through the conscious activities of the people
than in any preceding formation. ~'his is why V. I. Lenin, who proposed, even before
the October Revolution, the thesis that the goal of socialism is to surmount man-
kind's fragmentation, turned special attention to th~ need for considering and
creating the objective international ties evolving in the life of the society and
' in the mutual relations among nations. In the first years of Soviet rule he re-
turned again and again to the need for the party and the entire working class to
organize "an extremely complex and delicate network of new organizational relations,"
he indicated the need for creating a new form of social ties,ss he expressed
pleasure in the fact that "a new unity had e~~olved" in the masses, and he asserted
that "the dictatorship of the proletariat would have been impossi.ble, had the
laborers not been unified" and that owing to party policy the people had been
united "into one great, powerful family."57 The joint struggle for liberty and
socialism welded the working class and the laboring peasantry into a single unit,
and socialist development confirmed Lenin's sagacious idea that this union became
the alpha and omega of Soviet rule, that proletarian internationalism is the most
important, insurmotmtable, and inexhausti.ble source of strength enjoyed by laborers
of all nationalities in the first country to assume the role of socialism.58
Formation of the USSR soon after the victory of the October ~,evolution and, as a
- result of socialist revolutions in the course of World War II, of a new community
of peoples--the world socialist fraternity, marked "the beginning of the historic
~ process of a universal drawing together of nations."59
Lif~ has demonstrated the historical significance ~f Lenin's concern for creating
new social ties and for achieving worldwide unity among laborers: The historically
new community evolved as a factor and as a consequence of affirmation of the in-
destructible unity of socialist society. It is by analyzing this unity that we can
come to understand the principal law governing formation and development of the
community itself; concurrently, such analysis is one of the most fundamental pre-
requisites for revealing other laws and trends typical of the Soviet people's
progress. "The unity of the people, their social cohesiveness," writes P. N.
Fedoseyev, "is one of the decisive criteria of de~eloped socialist society."60
- One of the main conclusions that can be made today from studying formation, opera-
tion, and progress of the historically new cocmmunity in our country is that the
laws governing its development are not isolated from the entire system of laws of
Soviet society, being instead a part of this system and fundamentally compatible
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with it. Nevertheless for a number of zeasons it would still be incorrect to treat
the laws governing formation and development of the new com�nunity and those govern-
ing the life of all society as co~letely identical. First, comparative analysis
would be possible in this case only if we consider everything associated with the
popu].ar composition of the society and of the Soviet people, viewed as a new
coirnnunity, and of the classes, social groups, nations, and nationalities existing
within their co?nposition. As we know, prior to the victory of socialism but after
the historically new community had evolved and while petty bourgeois strata still
existed in the country's urban and rural population, such an identity could not
have been. Second, out of all of the social ties typical of the present stage of
our country's development, the historically new co~nunity embodies within itself
only the socioeconomic, political, ideological-cultural, and moral-psychological
ties, as well as national and international ties based upon the former. While the
trends associated with the society's relationship to nature, with many aspects of
the national economy's development (including technology and production engineering),
and with the state's internal development and activities (for example organization
of the country's defenses, improvement of the art of war, mutual relations with the
external capitalist world) are significant, they do not enter directly into the
system of laws of the Soviet people. Consequently the laws and trends of develop-
ment of these and some other spheres cannot be the laws and trends of the histori-
cally new community, even though they naturally do occupy a certain place withi.n
the system of laws governing the life of the society.
While the concept "historically new community" may have several different meanings,
it is still applied primarily to a sociopolitical organism, one including class
and national formations and existing as a social and international community; more-
over we can say, conditionally to a certain extent, that this community exists not ~
only in unity with ones presently existing and ones contained within the former,
but also, in view of the certain degree of independence of the new community, side
by side with them.
V. I. Lenin turned special attention to the political nature of differences existing
between socialism and communism. "With time, the political difference between the
first or lowest and the highest phase of co~nunism, he wrote at the eve of the
victory of the October Revoluta.on, "will probably grow enormous...."61 Life has
fully confirmed this prediction: Zn the conditions of mature socialism, there can
be no doubt that a profound change has occurred in the very basis of the main
political factors--the nature of socialist property, the class and national
structures of the society, and equality of its classes, nations, and laborers in
general. In this case the nature of social ties that make the Soviet people a
historically new community continues to be class-oriented and, consequently,
political, and it will remain so until full communism is achieved.
The already-evident nature of relationships existing between unionwide and republic
interests, between international and national consciousness and, at a still lower
level, between class and national factors in social life, reveals a real, and not
fabricated, need for comparing all Soviet people as a community, and of the classes
and nations making up the former, mainly in regard to social role. There is also
a need for considering, if not the difference between certain laws (this is some-
times highly difficult) in application to all Soviet people and the con�nunities
they represent, then at least the sphere and level of their action, and the role
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played by laws operating in the first level in bri:~ging laws of the second level
into action.
Marx wrote that the usual fate of any new creation of history is that of being
identified with previous forms of social life. This has happened to some ex-
tent c~it.h the interpretation of the historically new cot~anunity--the 5oviet people:
As was noted earlier, the latter has been referred to as "the single all-Soviet
nation", as a"superethnic coIIanunity", and so on. These labels imply a lack of
understanding of both the essence of the new community and, still more, the laws
governing its development.
We can distinguish three mutually associated laws governing development of Soviet
society, which began to operate in the very first years of its existence and which
simultaneously exist as laws directly governi.ng formation of the historically new
community. The first law can be stated as continual reinforcement of the society's
unity on the basis of a socialist structure, weakening and subsequent elimination
of the vestiges of the classes of exploitation, intensified centraliza~ion of
economic and political life, and growth in the role of Marxist-Leninist ideology.
The second law has operated in inseparable association with the first law, and to
a significant extent on its basis--creation and reinforcement of new social ties,
ones not only inherent to socialist society in general, as was discussed above in
relation to Leni.n's assessments of processes occurring immediately after the revo-
lution, but also ones typical mainly of the embryonic historically new community.
_ What this means is that socialism opened up a new possibility for forming a quali-
tatively new type of social ties as a result of a unique intertwining of all three _
types of social relations--between classes, between nations, and between individuals.
The third law governing development of Soviet society and, concurrently, formation
of the historically new co~unity was formation of common traits in classes and
social groups, in nations, nationalities, and national and ethnic groups, and in
laborers united into labor collectives. These co~non traits took shape on the
basis of the unified socioeconomic nature of the socialist structure, the Soviet
forcn of rule, internationalist ideology, and the comm4n interests and goals of the
laborers, irrespective of class and national membership, with the :iominant role
being played by the socialist interests and communist ideals of the working class
and by its Marxist-Leninist philosophy.
Other laws contained within the system of laws governing development of all society
have also operated in inseparable unity with those named above. But two of them
have had special significance: growth in the guiding role of the Communist Party,
and intensified internationalization of all spheres of social life. The law of
growing party leadership in development of Soviet society had a most sig:ificant
influence upon the objective nature of the Soviet people's formation and c~evelopment
as a historically new community.
In their struggle to implement t:c program and policies developed by V. I. Lenin
with respect to national relations, both the working class of our country as a
whole and its party successively followed, both during the revolution and in the
years of socialism's development, a course of �"defending the unity of the prole-
tarian struggle and the proletarian organizations, and their most intimate merger
into an international community...."62 The single Soviet working class and its
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- party became precisely such an international community, having recognized the
objective trends in sacial developtnent, and having mobilized all of their strength
- in an effort to hring these trends into being. C~aiding itseLf by the law ~f con-
tinual internationalization of all spheres of the society's life, discovered by
Marx and Engels but stated in its final form by V. I. Lenin, the Leninist party
_ has supported, both theoretically and politically, every new step toward unifica-
tion of~classes, social groups, nations, and nationalities in the struggle for the
revolution's victory, for formation of a unified Uni~n of Soviet Socialist Republics,
for development of socialism and defense of its achievements, and for attainment of
mature socialism by our society. Implementation of the program objective stated
by the party and the Soviet working class under its guidance, and achievement of
the desire for unity harbored by the millions of laborers--one of the greatest
sources of progress--thus fell in line with the action of laws governing formation
of the historically new cotmmunity, and played a tremendous role in its formation
and development.
The action of the laws governing formation of the historically new community, listed
abave, manifested itself within the system of all laws of society's development, ~
includi.ng the laws and trends of internal development of classes, social groups,
nations, and nationalities, on the basis of the unity and friendship of which the
historically new community underwent formation. Of course, the main foundation
for all this was the profound qualitative changes resulting from, first, creation
of the basis of socialism, and then forniation of mature socialist ~ociety. It
would be especially important to note the following fundamental phenomena of Soviet ~
life: transformation of the CPSU from a party of the working class to a party of
all the people; unification of the economies of all union republics into a single
national economic complex, and equalization, in general, of the levels of economic
development of different nations and nationalities; development of the union of the
working class and peasantry into a sound political and ideological complex con-
sisting of these classes and the people's intelligentsia; reinforcement of the
governmental unity of the peoples of the USSR, and transformation of the state
into a whole people's state; formation of a single all-Soviet international
culture based on Marxist-Leninist ideology and the best achievements of the
national cultures of the peoples of the USSR; a high level of maturity of social
consciousness, and achievement of significant results i.n completing Lenin's task of
nurturing comprehensively developed and comprehensively trained people, confirmed
patriots, and profound internationalists. As predicted by V. I. Lenin, the Soviet
people achieved international unity through socialism's victory, resolution of the
nationalities issue, and profound changes in the development and growing together
of nations and nationalities: Due to the nature of our structure and the efforts
of the party, the inviolable friendship of peoples was forged, to become the motive
foxce of t:-~eir subsequent progress; internationalism transformed from an ideal of
the communists into a norm of the consciousness and behavior of all Soviet people;
the entire sphere of interpersonal relations is now developing on the basis of
internationalism; the Soviet people have asstaned an intern~tional consciousness,
one that is not in opposition to the national consciousness of the peoples of the
USSR, instead promoting development of this consciousness on a truly international
and internationalist basis.
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Having assumed its final form 3t the time of affirmation of matur~ socialist _
society, the historically new community--the Soviet people--continues to develop
today, and its social role is constantly growing.
The main law of the Soviet people's development is constant reinforcement of their
unity on the basis of growing social homogeneity of the society and movement of
all nations and nationalities toward complete unity.
As class differences disappear in conjunction with the weakening of the divisive
role of national differences, an objective law canses the birth of new social
ties, ones beyond the framework of class and national communities and serving as _
the basis of common traits typical of the commwlities and all laborers making up
the Soviet people. These traits are unique in that they do not depend on class
and national membership, while at the same ti~ playing an increasinqlg more im-
portant role in the life of the laborers and all Soviet people.
The law of harmonious combination of national and international factors of social
' development also continues to operate, manifesting itself in terms of new parameters.
The main direction of the objective development of these factors and the proportion
in which they ex~st cannot at all be called parallel, nor do these factors supplant
one another; instead, they represent dialectical mutual penetration and mutual
, transition. That which is national is raised to the level of that which is inter-
national, and the latter is embodied within the basic content of the national; more-
over the realm of that which is narrowly and specifically national gra3ually de-
creases, though it will inevitably continue to exist until nations wither away.
Agreetnent in the fundamental, long-range interests of the Sovi~t people and of class
~ and national communities making them up--with the latter~retaining their specific
interests--is to be expectPd. In this case the classes and nations would recognize
the prevailing significance of the interests of the historically new community over
their own specific interests, and in turn, the community would exhibit a constant
tendency for maximally satisfying the demands of the classes and nations, and for
, promoting their truly comprehensive development.
Z'he social consciousness and psychology of the historically new co~unity is enjoying
further consolidation. In this case it is important to emphasize that while national _
consciousness may evolve at the grass-roots level, the self-consciousness of the
historically new commwlity is arising as a result of scientific theoretical rESearch,
and it is being spread through the masses through the indoctrination effort of the
Communist Party and the Soviet government, an effort relying upon the living ex-
perience of the laborers and their grass-roots consciousness. 2'his can be explained
by the fact that general Soviet culture and the Soviet people's recognition of their
existence from the social and international points o~ view cannot play their full
social role if they do not enter into the warp and woof of all aspects of the life
of the classes and social groups, nations and nationalities, and all Soviet people
making up the new community. .
- The above description of the objective basis for the function and progress of the
Soviet people as a historically new community leads to the conclusion that within
the system of laws governing the community's development, the following have
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dominant significance, and their manif~station has unique featvres in comparison
with the objective processes associated wi~h all of the society's progress: continual
reinforcement of the unity of the Soviet people on the basis of deepening interaction
and mutual penetration of the processes associated with growing social homogeneity
and movement of all nations and nationalities toward complete unity; growth in the
social role of the historically new community in the progress of the classes, social
groups, nations, and nationalities making it up, and in development of a classless
society; intensification of the historically new coaanunity's influence� upon unifica-
tion of states and peoples representing the countries of the socialist fraternity,
and upon consolidation of the positions of the whole world socialist system.
There are also a number of unique features in the manifestations of the comQnon laws
governing development of all mankind, Soviet society, the historically new community,
and the individual nations making it up. On one side, for example, we have growth
in social homogeneity accompanying development of the historically new community,
and manifestation of this trend in the life of individual nations and nationalities.
But on the other side there is great uniqueness in the way a single world economy
is developing and in the way our country's national economic complex is undergoing
consolidation. The same can also be said in relation to manifestations of inter-
nationalization in development of mankind, in the life of Soviet societv. and in the
life of individual nations and nationalities of the USSR. Hence researchers face the
task of finding a methodological approach and analysis criteria which would pernut
them to reveal both the unity and the differences in embodiment of these conaran laws
at different levels of their action. Moreover it would be extremely important to
demonstrate how objective and subjective factors interrelate within each particular
sphere, what new ttiings might arise as a result of this interrelationship, and what
sort of achievements might be attained if in the course of scientific control of
social processes we discover a possibility for changing this iiYterrelationship in
some way.
Many factors specific not to the socialist structure that has confirmed itself but
rather to our country alone have had a significant influence upon the laws governing
formation and development of the historically new community--the Soviet people, and
on the way these laws manifest themselves. Manifesting themselves in direct associ-
ation with these factors, the laws governing development of the Soviet people went
into action gradually, growing in intensity as the former took shape. For practical
purposes they did not begin to manifest themselves to their full extent until affirma-
tion of mature socialism. Inasmuch as the new society represents a mature level of
our society's progress, it is precisely at this level that the action of the laws
governing the function and development of the Soviet people is truly ,profound and
multifaceted. These laws now manifest themselves to a greater extent and in a
socially more meaningful way than in the period of the community's formation, and
' their understanding by our Leninist party has become fuller and more comprehensive.
One result of implementation of the laws governing development of the historically
new community is continual consolidation of this community's social, class, and
international unity, reinforcement of mutual ties within class and national communi-
ties and between them, reinforcement of the union of all laborers, and accelerated
formation of the fully developed personality--the builder of communism.
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De~elopment of the Soviet people as a community on the basis of the abave-described
laws of the community's growing unity manifests itself at very many levels in the
life of the society. These manifestations primarily include the deepeninq content
and increasing diversity of the forms of interclass and international ties, and
enlargement of their magnitude in the F~rocess of further internationalization of the
society's economic, sociopolitical, and spiritual life; consolidation of the pre-
viously evolved coc~unon traits of the classes, social groups, nations, and nationali- -
ties, and arisal of new common traits; implementation of the party's measures to
form the new man, and to consolidate interpersonal ties in our society.
Social homogeneity of the entire society, which is growing in depth and scale, has
especially important significance to manifestation of the laws of growing unity of
the Soviet people. It is obvious in this case that this process is both the most
important source and the principal motive force of development of the Soviet people
as a community; moreover it is also the principal trend of its development.
Development of social homogeneity is now very important not only on its own but also
in terms of its influence of amplifying the principal trends in development of
national relations--the coming together of nations and reinforcement of the inter-
national unity of the Soviet people. There is great theoretical and methodological
significance to the fact that party documents of recent years assert existence of a
new qualitative level in the coming together of nations, which is described as
"accelerating" and "progressing".63
The following have special significance to revealing the role played by changes
in the essence of national relations in the development of the Soviet people as a
community today: a) further growth in the significance of socialist internationalism,
and b) continual, gradual change in the proportion of international and national
factors in the life of the entire fraternal family of the peoples of the USSR, and
of each group individually.
The 25th CPSU Congress reemphasized the tremendous and constantly growing role of
socialist internationalism in the life of our society in the stage of developed
socialism. This pertains mainly to the essence and forms of manifestation of the
historically new community, in the development of which internationalism is para-
mount, since the latter is precisely what determines, in many ways, the essence of
the new form of social ties at the basis of formation of the Soviet people, and
which now makes up the basis of their further development. Socialist international-
ism is constantly growing richer, and the sphere of its 3ction is broadening.
In the methodological respect, development of the Soviet people is highly interest-
ing in connection with change occurring in the proportion existing between inter-
national and national factors. The dialectics of changes occurring in this re-
lationship are such that the latter is changing in favor of greater significance
and a larger role for the international factor in the society's development. It
stands to reason that this has a very large influence upon consolidation anc~ develop-
ment of the international unity of the Soviet people, existing as a historically _
new human community. As a result the role of socialist internationalism is in-
creasing, as is its influence in bringing classes, social groups, nations, and
nationalities closer together; the influence of the multinational working class
upon consolidation and development of the Soviet people is intensifying, especially
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owing to the fact that the characi:eristics and traits that are most representative
of mature socialism are precisely the basis for consolidating characteristics and
traits of the ~oviet people that had evolved previously, and for forming new ones;
the international culture of the Soviet people is enjoying increasingly greater
development, with the significance of this culture to laborers of all nationalities
growing on one hand, and their active participation in this enrichment and develop-
ment growing on the other hand, mainly through insuring progress of the national
cultures contained within the single international culture.
When analyzing the present stage of the Soviet people's development, it is very -
important to correctly define and competently utilize the criteria for evaluating
changes in the relationship between national and international factors. Marxism-
Leninism rejects both the i.nterpretation of their relationship as parallel factors,
ones independent of one another and, all the more so, opposing each other, and
interpretation of changes in this relationship as displacement of that which is
national by that which is international. In reality, that which is international
cannot exist by itself, without the national, instead being inseparably associated
with it and, moreover, being embodied within it. Such embodiment is also, of
course, a complex dialectic phenomenon. The international is embodied mainly in
that part of the national which has to do with national classes and which is coixunon
with other nations, the latter arising as a result of assitnilation of the achieve- ~
ments of these other peoples. It stands to reason that in a number of cases that
which is international is also that which is national, something that evolved as
specifically national but then became common to some or many other peoples.
Growth in the role of the Soviet people, representing a historically new human
community, in promoting the progress of our great motherland is doubtlessly to be
expected. However, we should keep in mind that this process proceeds at many levels.
It manifests itself as multipZication of the results of the collaboration and social
activity of classes and nations, and of all Soviet people in their effort to
develop communism. It is very important to emphasize yet another aspect of the
influence the Soviet people have upon social progress: All social-class and
national communities are now developing not only through their own resources but
also as a result of the fruitful influence of the combined power of the Soviet
people, existing as an objective reality, upon development of every class and
nation, and upon formation of the personality of the builder of communism. The
influence of the historically new community manifests itself in particular through
the whole people's Soviet state, in the hands of which the distribution of all- ~
union resources, the planning of the distribution of productive forces, and redistri-
bution of manpower, especially laborers and specialists, are primarily concentrated.
I~breover under party guidance the state is conducting a tremendous organizational
= and educational effort among the masses, and it is untiringly multiplying the
econonu.c and spiritual potential of our society.
The paths of growth in the role of the historically new human community in promoting
social progress are predetermined by the sum total of our reality: the social
need for further drawing together of classes, social groups, nations, and nationali-
ties, and for increasing the total power of the millions of laborers for the pur-
poses of consolidating mature socialism and insuring its gradual transformation
into communism; the need for the Soviet people's fulfillment of their international
duty of reinforcing and multiplying the achievements of world socialism, and of
substantiating the new forms and methods of all mankind's movement toward a magni-
ficent communist future.
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Thus the theory of the histarically new comanunity, being developed by the Communist
Party of the Soviet Union, is a significant contribution to scientific communism's
enrichment, and to the world experience of practical improvement of the forms and
methods of scientific control over social processes in the stage of mature socialism
and at the timz of its transformation into communism.
* * *
The tremendous advantages of socialism over capitalism are revealing themselves in
the development of the Soviet people as a historically new community, and in the
' new communities presently taking shape in individual countries and in the entire
~ world socialist fraternity. Such development is also revealing new sources of un-
stopable progress of the people on the path to a system of social and international
com~?unities, then to the same sort of community representing the entire world, and
from it to a classless and nationality-less mankind. Marxist-Leninist science -
provides inexhaustible possibilities for understanding these processes and, on
' this basis, for accounting for the laws of social progre~s in the effort to build
a classless society. Guiding themselves by the theory and methodology of Marxism-
' Leninism in their analysis of the laws governing formation and development of a
historically new comcminity--the Soviet people, researchers will thus concurrently
make a contribution to "helping the party resolve, in the most correct way, histori.c
problems such as progressive erasure of class differences and affirmation of complete
social homogeneity in our society, further development of the party's Lenin64t
nationalities policy, and reinforcement of the unity of all Soviet people. ~e
CPSIJ Central Committee decree on further improvement of ideological work and politi-
cal indoctrination also states that am~ng the important problems the party faces
today, that of promoting further consolidation of the unity and cohesiveness of the
great Soviet people has important significance.65
FOOTNOTES
1. "riaterialy XXV s"yezda KPSS" [Proceedings of the 25th CPSU Congress], Moscow,
1976, p 81.
2. Fedoseyev, P. N., "The Soviet People--Builders of Co~nunism," VOPR(JSY FILO50FII,
No 7, 1977, p 22.
3. "Materialy XXIV s"yezda KPSS" [Proceedings of the 24th CPSU Congress], Nbscow,
1971, p 76.
4. "On Preparation ror the 50th Anniversary of Farmation of the Union of Soviet
5ocialist Republics," CPSU Central Committee Decree, Moscow, 1972, p 17.
5. Ibid. , p 18.
6. Brezhnev, L. I., "Leninskim kursom. Rechi i stat'i" [Following Lenir,'s Course.
Speeches and Articles], Vol 4, Mc~scow, 1974, pp 57, 61.
7. Kim, M. P., "Sovetskiy narod--novaya istoricheskaya obshchnost [The Soviet
People--a Historically New Community], Nbscow, 1972, pp 24-34.
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8. Ibid., p 18.
9. Ibid., p 99; Kim, M. P., "Sovetskiy narod--sotsialisticheskaya obshchnost'
trudyashchikhsya" [The Soviet People--a Socialist Community of Laborers],
Moscow, 1978, p 87.
. 10. Stepanyan, Ts. A., "The Soviet People--Pioneers in Development of Com�ttunism,"
in "Sovetskiy narod--stroitel' kommunizma" [The Soviet People--Builders of
Co~nunism], Book 1, Frunze, 1977, p 81.
11. Ibid., p 101. This idea was also later emphasized by I. P. `Psameryan. See
"Natsii i natsional'nyye otnosheniya v razvitom sotsialisticheskom obshchestve"
[Nations and National Relations in Developed Socialist Society], Moscow, 1979,
pp 99-100.
12. See Kulichenko, M. I., "7.'he Soviet People--a Historically New Human Community,':
PROBLEMY MIRA I SOTSIALIZMA, No 7, 1972; Kulichenko, M. I., "The Soviet People-- ;
a Historically New Human Community," in "Sovetskiy Soyuz i sovremennyy mir" ~
[The Soviet Union and the Modern World] , Prague, 1972, pp 214-224.
13. Kim, M. P., "Sovetskiy narod--novaya istoricheskaya obshchnost'." See the
chapter entitled "The Historical Experience of the CPSU in Formation of a New ;
Community of Laborers in a Period of Transition"; Shevtsov, N. S., "The Guiding
Role of the CPSU in Formation and Development of a Historicallv New Community--
the Soviet People~" in "Zakonomernosti formirovaniya sovetskogo naroda kak
novoy istoricheskoy obshchnosti" [Laws Governing Formation of theSoviet People
as a Historically New Com�~?unity], Vol 1, Nbscow, 1975, pp 267-281.
14. Kulichenko, M. I., "Natsional'nyye otnosheniya v SSSR i tendentsii ikh ,
razvitiya" [National R,elations in the USSR and the Trends of Their Development], _
Moscow, 1972; Kulichenko, M. I. ,"The Soviet People---a Historically New Htunan
Community," in "Mnogonatsional'noye Sovetskoye gosudarstvo" [Z'he Multinational _
Soviet State], Nbscow, 1972, pp 329-387; Kulichenko, M. I., "The Soviet People-- ;
a Historically New Human Com~?unity," SSHA: EKONOMIKA, POLITIKA, IDEOLOGIYA, _
No 12, 1972, etc.
15. See "Sovetskiy narod i dialektika natsional'nogo razvitiya" [The Soviet People
and the Dialectics of National Development], Baku, 1977, p 56. See also ;
Dashdamirov, A. F., "Sovetskiy narod" [The Soviet People], Baku, 1977, p 73.
16. See Tsameryan, I. P., "Teoreticheskiye problemy obrazovaniya i razvitiya
Sovetskogo mnogonatsional'nogo gosudarstva" [Theoretical Problems in Formation
and Development of the Soviet Multinational State], Moscow, 1973, pp 199-200.
17. Zateyev, V. I., "A Description of the Essence of the Soviet People Interpreted
as a Historically New Human Community," in "Obrazovaniye SSSR--torzhestvo
leninskoy natsional'noy politiki" [Formation of the USSR--the Triim?ph of
Lenin's National Policy], Pyatigorsk, 1972, p 67.
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- 18. It should be emphasized that this issue was first suggested by M. N. Rosenko
back in 1972. See "Obrazovaniye SSSR--torzhestvo leninskoy natsional'noy
politiki," Pyatigorsk, 1972, pp 29-33. M. N. Rosenko also wrote on this topic
in the monograph "Sotrudnichestv~ i sblizheniye sotsialisticheskikh natsiy v
usloviyakh razvitogo sotsialisticheskogo obshchPStva" (Cooperation and the
Drawing Together of Socialist Nations in the Conditions of Developed Socialist
Societyj (Leningrad, 1974, pp 155-156). -
19. Rosenko, M. N., "Formation and IIevelopment of the Soviet Peoples--the Triumph
of the Principles of Lenin's National Policy," in "Voprosy teorii i
praktiki razvitiya natsional'nykh otnosheniy" [Problems in the Theory and
Practice of Development of National Relationsj, Leningrad, 1974, p 7.
20. Slavin, L. M., "Internationalization of Social Li�e in Socialism, and the Laws
Governing Development of the Soviet People," VOPRiOSY FILOSOFII, No 9, 1972,
pp 10-13.
_ 21. See "Leninizm i upravleniye sotsial'nymi protsessami pri sotsializme"
[Leninism and Control of Social Processes in Socialism], Moscow, 1973, p 297;
M~el'nikova, G. A., "The Relationship Between Class Factors and National Factors
' in Formation of the Soviet People as a Historically New Community," in
' "Razvitiye XXV s"yezdom KPSS teorii sotsialisticheskogo obshchestva" [Develop-
ment of the Theory of Socialist Society by the 25th CPSII Congress], Izd-vo
LGU, 1978, pp 75-76.
22. For greater detail, see Kulichenko, M. I., "Natsional'nyye otnosheniya v SSSR
i tendentsii ikh razvitiya" [National Relations in the USSR and the Trends of
Their Developmentj, p 387.
23. Brezhnev, L. I., "Leninskim kursom. Rechi i stat'i," Vol 4, p 216.
24. See Semenov, V. S., "Dialektika razvitiya sotsial'noy struktury sovetskogo
obshchestva" [The Dialectics of Development of Soviet Society's Social
Structure], Nbscow, 1977, p 104-108.
25. Kholmogorov, A. I., "Yedinyy i mnogonatsional'nyy" [United and Multinational], -
Riga, 1970, pp 35, 163.
26. Loc. cit., pp 143-157; Kholmogorov, A. I., "The Psychosocial Laws Governing
Development of a Historically New Human Community," in "Obrazovaniye SSSR--
torzhestvo leninskoy natsional'noy politiki," Pyatigorsk, 1972, pp 44-54.
27. See Malanchuk, V. Ye., "Istoricheskiy opyt KPSS po resheniyu natsional'nogo -
voprosa i raz~~itiyu natsional'nykh otnosheniy v SSSR" [The Historic Experience
of the CPSU in Solving the National Question and Developing National Relations
in the US5Rj, Nbscow, 1972, p 255; Kulichenko, M. I., "Natsional'nyye otnosheniya
v SSSR i tendentsii ikh razvitiya," p 465; Zimanas, G. O., "The Signiricance of
~ Ideology and National Psychology to Development of Socialist Nations," in
"Sotsializm i natsii" (Socialism and Nations], Nbscow, 1975, p 195; Zimanas, -
G. O., "Party Policy and the International Consciousness of the Soviet People,"
KOMMUNIST, No 5, 1974, pp 45-50.
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28. See "Novaya istoricheskaya obshchnost' lyudey: sushchnost', formirovaniye,
razvitiye" [A Historically New Commn~,uzity of People: Essence, Formation,
DevelopmentJ, Moscow, 1976, pp 381-382.
29. Bagramov, E. A., "Formation of the Soviet People as a Historically New '
Community of People--a Law of Developmer~t of Socialism and Communism," in
"Zakonomernosti formirovaniya sovetskogo naroda kak novoy istoricheskoy
obshchnosti lyudey" [The~Laws Governing Forntation of`the Soviet People as
- a Historically New Human Community], Vol 1, p 13.
30. See Vat'yan, G. A., "Yedinyy int,ernatsional'nyy sovetskiy narod" [The Unified
International Soviet People), Yerevan, 1979, pp 7-45.
31. Slavin, L. M., Op. cit., p 7.
32. See Tsameryan, I. P., "Natsii i natsional'nyye otnosheniya v razvitom
sotsialisticheskom obshchestve" [Nations and National Relations in Developed
Socialist Society], p 99. ~ ~
33. Rasenko, M. N., "Sovetskiy narod--novaya istoricheskaya obshchnost [The
Soviet People--a Historically New Community], Leningrad, 1973, pp 18-19.
34 Kun, M. P., "Sovetskiy narod--novaya istoricheskaya obshchnost'," p 237. ~
35. Kaltakhchyan, S. T., "The Soviet People--a Historically Ne~a Human Community,"
in "Dorogami druzhby" [Traveling the Roads of Friendship], Mc~scow, 1972,
p 160. See. also: "Leninizm o sushchnosti natsii i puti obrazovaniya
internatsional'noy obshchnosti lyudey" [Leninism on the Essence of Nations
and the Ways for Fornung an International Community of People~, 2d Edition,
Moscow, 1976, p 347.
36. Sherstobitov, V. P., "Sovetskiy narod--novaya istoricheskaya obshchnost'
lyudey" [Z'he Soviet People--a Historically New Human Community], Moscow,
1972, p 35.
37. Rr~gachev, P. M., and Sverdlin, M. A., "Sovetskiy narod--novaya istoricheskaya
obshchnost' lyudey" [The Soviet People--a Historically New Human Community],
Nbscow, 1973, p 11.
38. See "Veiikiy sovetskiy narod" [The Great Soviet People], Kiev, 1976, p 486.
39. See "Stanovlenyye sovetskogo naroda i razvitiye sotsialisticheskikh natsiy" _
[7."he Formation of the Soviet People and Development of Socialist Nations],
Kiev, 1978, p 31.
40. Kozlov, V. I., "Nation and National Government," in "Voprosy marksistsko-lenin-
skoy teorii natsii i natsional'nykh otnosheniy. (K 50-letiyu SSSR)" [Problems
in Marxist-Leninist Theory of Nations and National Relatioiis (Dedicated to
the SOth Anniversary of the USSR)], Perm', 1972, pp 20-21.
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41. Semenov, Yu. I., "The Place of the Soviet People Among Human Communities of
Historical Importance," NARODY AZII I AFRIKI, No 5, 1973, pp 56-57.
42. Tadevosyan, E. V., "The Soviet People--a Historically New H~nan Co~unity,"
VOPROSY ISTORII KPSS, No 5, 1972, p 30.
43. Rr~senko, M. N., "Some Methodological Issues in R,esearch on the Soviet People
Viewed as a Historically Defined ComQnunity of People," in "Obrazovaniye SSSR--
torzhestvo leninskoy natsional'noy politiki," Pyatigorsk, 1972, p 41.
44. Dashdamirov, A. F., "Sovetskiy narod," p 17.
45. See Kim, M. P., "Sovetskiy narod--sotsialisticheskaya obshchnost' trudyashchi-
khsya," pp 14-15; Bromley, Yu. V., "International and National Factors in
Development of Socialism and Communism," in "Bratskoye sotrudnichestvo
narodov Sovetskogo Soyuza--internatsionalizm v deystvii" [Fraternal Cooperation
of the Peoples of the Soviet Union--Internationalism in Action], Moscow, 1978,
pp 7-8.
46. See Semenov, V. S., "Internatsionalizm i obshchestvennyy progress" [Inter-
nationalism and Social Progress], Nbscow, Chapter 1, 1978.
47. Borisov, L. P., "Sovetskiy patriotizm i sotsialisticheskiy internatsionalizm"
(Soviet Patriotism and Socialist Internationalism] , Nbscow, 1976,. p 23.
48. Marks, K., and Engel's, F., "Soch." [Works], Vol 8, p 84.
49. Ibid., Vol 6, p 298.
~ 50. Ibid. , Vol 16, p 161.
~ 51. Lenin, V. I., "PSS" [Complete Collected Works], Vol 24, p 125.
I
; 52. VOPROSY FIOLOSOFII, No 10, 1974, p 22.
53. Lenin, V. I., "PSS," Vol 3, p 600.
54. Ibid., Vol 45, p 402.
55. Ibid., Vol 26, p 40.
56, See Ibid., Vol 36, pp 171, 186; Vol 39, p 17.
57. See Ibid., Vol 37, p 123; Vol 40, p 225; Vol 52, p 301.
58. See Ibid., Vol 40, p 242; Vol 43, p 381.
59. "Programma IGommunisticheskoy partii Sovetskogo Soyuza" [The Program of the
Communist Party of the Soviet ifiion], Moscow, 1976, p 23.
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60. Fedoseyev, P. N., "Markistsko-leninskaya filosofiya na sovremennom etape"
[Marxist-Leninist Philosophy in the Present StageJ, Moscow, 1974.
61. Lenin, V. I., "PSS," Vol 33, p 98.
~
62. Ibid., Vol 25, p 319.
63. See Brezhnev, L. I., "Leninskim kursom. Rechi i stat'i," Vol 6, Moscow,
1978, pp 383, 584. :
64. Brezhnev, L. I., "Leninskim kursom . Rechi i stat'i," Vol 5, Moscow, 1976,
p 367. , _
65. See "On Further Improvement of Ideological and Political Indoctrination,"
CPSU Central Committee Decree, Moscow, 1979, p 7. ~
i
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DISCt~SION
Academician M. P. Kim
The question as to continuity in the course of formation of the Soviet people as
a historically new community is one of the incompletely studied aspects of this
process. Were we to listen to some authors, we would be told that the Soviet
people did not begin their history until the time of creation of mature socialist
society in the USSR, within which the Soviet people appeared just as unexpectedly as
Minerva's owl from the head of Jupiter, without a basis in history and without
continuity with the past. But this historically new community, which evolved into
its final form in the conditions of developed socialism, took shape over a historical
period of time, evolving throuqhout the entire time of our society's socialist ren-
ovation. Z'he process of its actual formation began at the moment of the October
Socialist Revolution and ended in conjunction with attainment of mature socialism
in the USSR, when it ass~ned its final form as a socialist community of laborers
representing all nationalities of the Soviet tfiion. The stages of socialism's
development and of t'^~ !:~~*_c:.icallv new societ;~'~ ~ormation an8 de~-el~pment are
~ in synchrony.
But the Soviet people, interpreted as a historically new co~nunity of people, have
~ not onl a histo but also a rehisto
y ry p ry. Their formation and development must be
studied in inseparable association with the entire past: history and prehistory.
As with any category of history, the historically new comanunity of people must be
examined strictly from a historical standpoint--in retrospect, in the present, and
in its historical future. Apart from this temporal trinity, we could understand
neither the nature nor the purpose nor the historical fate of the Soviet people as
a historically new community of people.
, A community of people of historical importance existed before, and it will always
exist. In different stages of history, this community existed in different rela-
tionships with society as a whole; in.different historical eras it is represented
- by components brouqht toqether in different ways. But throuqhout all history its
existence has been associated with the labc~ring masses, being dependent upon their
historical creativity. In primitive society, befor~ mankind was divided into the
exploited and the exploiters, all members of society were of the people--they all
had a homogeneity about them. In class-antagonistic formations, thePeople are repre-
, sented by laborers and exploited people, opposed by another, nonpopular part of
mankind--the dominant groups of exploitation.
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As far as the composition of the people in class-antagonistic society and their
structural characteristics are ~concerned, the rudiments of the first correct inter-
" pretation became tangible in progressive social thought i.n the pre-Marxist period.
We read the following in the famous "Encyclopedie"of Diderot and d'Alembert: "2'he
people are a collective concept, one difficult to define because it is invested with
varying content depending on place, time, and the nature of government." Inter- _
preting the conce~t "people" in the aspect of interest to us, the author writes:
"At one time the people were the main estate of the nation, separated only from
the estate represented by the nobility and gentry. It included within itself the
farmers, craftsmen, merchan~ts, financiers, scholars, and lawyers.... Today this
part of the nation is limited to laborers and farmers.... And so, the bulk of the
people are now represented only by laborers and farmers" ("Istoriya v Entsiklopedii
Didro i Dalambera" [History in the Encyclopedie of Diderot and d'Alembert], Moscow,
1978, pp 81-82). And here is what V. Dal' writes in his defining dictionary:
"The people...are rabble, simple people, the lowest, subservient estate." Both of
the definitions cited here are essentially the same.
The Marxist-Leninist interpretation of the people as a human community of historic
proportions is a new, truly scientific conception, one with which the theoretical
and practical solutions to the key problems of history and social development are
associated. In application to a society of exploitation, the people can be defined
as the aggregate of laborers and exploited masses, which often unify to act in behalf ;
of progressive renovation of society, occasionally going as far as revolution.
It is with the proletarian revolution and socialism that the history of the people
as a historically new human con�nunity begins. In the socialist social structure,
the people are represented by all social groups in the society. They represent
"a rejection of rejection"--while formerly la.borers were combined as isolated groups
into class-antagonistic formations, the people now represent all members of society,
- and their composition coincides with that of society as a whole. But it stands to
reason that the socialist community of laborers differs fundamentally from com�nunal
hinnan society af the primitive era. What we have now is a community differing
fundamentally from all comanunities of laborers of historical proportions, existing
in the presocialist era, in terms of the conditions under which it formed and
developed, and in terms of its role and its historical fate. These unique features
of the historically new human community are being widely studied in the literature
dealing with the Soviet people (though not deeply enough yet). The following
question arises: Is there continuity between the new socialist community and the
previous presocialist community of laborers? A historically objective approach to
the question would lead to the only correct response--a positive one. However, I
repeat that the existing literature turns almost no atXention to this aspect of the
historically new community's formation. I would like to venture some "rough" ideas
on this issue.
- The continuity of the Soviet people with the people of the pre-October era rests
mainly in the fact that they began with the saa?e social-class composition of people
basically typical of people in former times--the working class, the peasantry, and
the intelligentsia. Preservation and further development of the leading position
and role of the working class within the composition of the people is an important
factor of continuity.
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The Soviet people accepted the baton of the struggle for liberation of the popular
masses of the past, and they absorbed the class and international traditions of
this struggle, traditions which became a significant component of the socialist
consciousness.
The Soviet people are engaged in historical creativity, continuing the class struggle
of the.proletariat and laboring peasantry under the guidance of the Com[nunist Party,
which formerly led the people toward rev~olutionary overthrow of the structure of
exploitation, and which is now leading the Soviet peop~e toward affirmation anid
improvement of the coaimunist social structure. Faithfulness to the Leninist party
and to its program and policies is one of the key links of the Soviet people's
continuity with their pre-October predecessors. And so, the prehistory of the
Soviet people left them a legacy consisting of the first achievements in creation
of social-class and international unity of the laboring classes and peoples of
Russia. Within the Soviet structure these achievements, multiplied and comprehen-
sively developed, became the imm~vable ideological and political foundation for
existence of the Soviet people as a historica3.ly new community.
Continuity between the Soviet people's past and present takes diverse forms, in both
spiritual life and cultural development. The.socialist culture of the Soviet people
has a firm foundation in the entire wealth of cultural achievements attained by
the popular masses in the past, within an exploiting social structure--despite cruel
living conditions and in spite of the antipopular designs and policies of the ruling
propertied classes. In his time, V. I. Lenin emphasized that progressive workers of
all countries, despite the highly severe conditions of capitalist oppression, create
a progressive, international culture. Marxism-Leninism--the highest achievement of
human culture--arose in capitalist conditions. The cultural-ideologiral continuity
between the Russian people in the pre-October era and the Sovi~t people bind them
spiritually as the initiators and continuers of the struggle for communist ideals.
Discussing cultural continuity, I would like to turn the reader's attention to the
role the people played and continue to play in development, preservation, and im-
provement of mankind's achievements in spiritual, including moral, development of
society. Lenin's work "Gosudarstvo i revolyutsiya" [State and Revolution] contains
some noteworthy premises: Only under communism "will people gradually become
- accustomed to observing the elementary rules of communal life, ones known to us
for centuries and repeated for millenia in all writings, accustomed to complying
without coercion, without compulsion..." (V. I. Lenin, "PSS" [Complete Collected
Works], Vol 33, p 89). The simple moral norn+s referred to by Lenin in the passage
cited here were worked out by the people, and it is by the people that they are
being caringly preserved, notwithstanding the transgressions of the classes of ex-
ploitation. They are intrinsic elements of the socialist moral culture of the
Soviet people.
Naturally my discussion has only broached the issue of continuity in the formation
and development of the new socialist community of people. It is my hope that more-
fruitful attention would be devoted to it in the future.
The history of the Soviet people's formation is a great and complex topic. There
are numerous aspects of its examination. Little can be done with just a single
round-table discussion. But perhaps today's round tati~e will serve as a new impetus
for further progress in research on such an important problem.
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Academician Yu. V. Bromley
I would like to continue the examination of the Soviet people, begun by M. P. Kim,
from the perspective of world history. Such an examination presupposes, first of
- all, clarification of the place this co~?unity.occupies in development of all types
of communities of historical proportions, from those of ancient times to those of
the present.
In this connection it would not be superfluous to consider some trends in develop-
ment of the basic types of com�nunities of historical importance--tribes, nationali-
ties, and nations--on the scale of world history.
lhze such trend is the constant growth in the size of these communities in the course
of their supersession.
Thus in the transition from tribes to nationalities, the latter usually absorb
several tribes (usually "familal" but far from solely so) . The ovenvhelming majority
of the nationalities of antiquity and the Middle Ages arose in this fashion:
Akkadians, Egyptians, Latins, Bulgars, Hungarians, Danes, Poles, Croations, Proven-
cals, Flemish, Scotts, and so on.
A similar trend is typical of formation of nations out of nationalities. We some-
times observe, of course, what might be called a direct transformation of a nationa-
lity into a nation bearing the same name. But this is also accompanied by an increase ,
in the size of such a communit~ owing to a demographic explosion occurring concurrently
with a transition from feudalism to capitalism. Typically, in the 200 years from
1650 to 1850 the population of almost all European peoples quadrupled. Concurrently,
as a nationality undergoes transition into a nation, enlargement of the latter is
also sometimes associated with inclusion of several coimnunities of the preceding type
within it. The simplest case is arisal of the French nation as a result of the
merger of the French and Pr.ovencal nations. A somewhat more-complex case is arisal
of the Spanish nation in the course of consolidation of the Castilian, Aragonese,
Andalusian, and other "kindred" nationalities. But the history of the German nation's
formation is especially demonstrative in this respect, having absorbed within itself
more than 300 nation-states.
It is also very important to emphasize another point: Transformation of tribes into
nationalities and of nationalities into nations does not occur in an instant. There
is a lengthy transitory period in such transformation. It usually begins with
emergence of a governmental-political formation embraci.ng several tribes (or,
correspondingly, several nationalities). As a result a supertribal (correspondingly
supernational) co~nunity arises. The cultural homogeneity o� such a new community
arising "from above" is significantly lower than that found within a tribe (or,
correspondingly, a nationality). Sometimes what we see at first is just a cultural
amalgam. Gradually, however, the density of the cultural (infoset') rises in the
"upper" stratum of the co~nunity, and drops in the "lower" stratum. When the "upper"
stratum rises above the "lower" stratwn, we can obviously say that a nationality has
arisen and the tribes have transformed into ethnographic qroups of the nationality
(or, co~respondingly, that a nation has arisen and the nationalities contained within
it have transformed into its ethnographic groups). It should be emphasized that this
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sort of transformation requires a great deal of time (in the examples of the French,
Spaniah, and German nations, this process took not less than 2 centuries; moreover
it had not even ended yet in some situations, for example the Catalonians and
Galicians in Spain).
I believe that it would not be�superfluous to keep all of this in mind when con-
sidering the future evolution of the relationship between the historically new
Soviet community and the historically traditional communities--nations and nationali-
. ties--contained within it. It is all the more important to maintain such a per-
spective because arisal of the Soviet people as a historically new community is
doubtlessly a natural phenomenon of socialist multinational countries. In particu-
lar, in my opinion the possibility that similar communities wou~d form in Yugoslavia,
Czechoslovakia, and Viet Nam is not excluded. Moreover in Czechoslovakia, for
example, this process may develop more quickly in view of the ethnic closeness of
the principal groups of people contained within this state.
I would also like to turn the reader's attention to tre relationship between social
and national factors i.n the historically new community. It should be emphasized
that one of the specific traits of the new community is its international character.
On the other hand this conanunity has specific social parameters. I would describe
it as follows: an international community that is new only in terms of its social
essence, since international coaununities have existed and exist today in conditions
other than socialist. As an example the Zndian people are an international community,
but they are capitalists, having a different social essence and following other laws.
I would like to conclude with a few words on a typical trait of the historically new
community--all-Soviet culture. Studying it, we must keep in mind not only profession-
al culture, to which we usually devote all of our attention, but also the culture of
day-to-day life, since it is only penetration of professional culture into the day-
_ to-day life of the peoples of our country that makes it an all-Soviet culture (it
may be Soviet in terms of being socialist, but not coirm~on to all Soviet people of
different nationalities). Unfortuna*_ely, not enough attention is being devoted to
this penetration of professional culture into day-to-day life.
A. I. Kholmogorov
Dnepropetrovsk Institute of Construction Engineering
The Soviet people are a complex social system consisting of heterogeneous social
subsystems: classes, social groups, nations, nationalities, and so on. Being
arbitrarily parceled out from the overall system, each of them is relatively inde-
pendent and represents a complex social formation. �
Viewed as a historically new human community, the Soviet people are a category con-
sisting of numerous aspects, and they are studied in Soviet scientific literature
predominantly from a double aspect: as a social-class community of people, and as
an international community. The Soviet people are a social-class community of people,
- consisting of the working class, the kolkhoz peasantry, and the socialist intelli-
gentsia, represented by different nationalities and characterized by a con�non
socialist fatherland, a federated multinational socialist state, a common Marxist-
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Leninist ideology, and a common goal--building communism in our country. This defi-
nition can be supplemented by another: The Soviet people are a socialist inter-
national community of people which arose and developed on the basis of common
e~:onomic life, territory, a common language of international com~nunication, co~non
charaCteristics in socialist culture, way of life, and psychology, and an awar~rieas
of inembership to a historically new hutoan community. ~ ;
Viewed as an international co~nunity of people, the Soviet people are typified by
particular traits outwardly similar to the characteristics of nations. But these are
not characteristics of a national coannunity, since a community is an interclass,
international formation. Presence of co~on traits in the historically new community
of people does not transform it into "a new Soviet nation", as is mistakingly
suggested by certain students of modern national processes in our country, as well
as by some citizens who rad proposed i.ntroducing the concept "unified Soviet nation"
into the new USSR Constitution in the course of the discussion o~ its draft, implying
by this term a historically new community of people. Z"he problem here is that the
Soviet people are not the simple sum of the nations and nationalities they represent, -
the Soviet pe~ple are the bearer of co~on properties and characteristics of Soviet
nations and nationalities. That which is specific, inherent only to one particular
Soviet nation or nationality, is not included within this concept.
Operation of the historically new co~nunity and its components (nations and
nationalities) results in creation of national relations, which are an inherent part
of socialist social relations, which can be broken down into those typical of the
foundation of the society and those typical of its superstructure. As a subject of
economic, political, ideological, class, national, family, and other forms of social
processes, the Soviet peogle experience the influence of these processes, and undergo
changes in their structure, function, and development. In turn, the Soviet people
have the capability for exerting a reverse influence upon their determinants.
Thus the Soviet people, viewed as a historically new hiunan co~nunity, are a social
phenomenon that follows objective social laws in its funetion and development.
Being the result of socialist and conrtnunist development, the Soviet people are
developing on the basis of the laws governing arisal, formation, and development
of the co~nunist socioeconomic formation. Their development is influenced by a
system of sociological laws, which manifest themselves in a unique way during oper-
ation of the communist socioeconomic formation.
The law of socialism applicable to national relations--the blossoming and drawing
together of Soviet nations and nationalities--is having an influence on the histori-
cally new comnunity's function and developinent.
Because this system of different levels of social laws has an influence upon the
historically new human couu~?unity, this does not mean that this co~nunity, being a
relatively indegendent structural subsystem of socialist society, is not typified
by its own laws, inherent to its nature and determining its function and development.
Viewed as a complex social-class and international whole, the Soviet people are a
self-developing social system--the bearer of cotmnon traits and objective, necessary,
repeating ties, and therefore they are typified by unique laws of development.
The laws governing development of the historically new human community may be sub-
divided in terms of the scale of their action into general or fundamental,
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manifesting themselves in all spheres of this community's function and development,
and derivative of the fozmer, particular, specific', existing in individual spheres
of the Soviet people's development.
The following may be validly treated as general, fundamental laws governing develop-
ment of the historically new human community:
movement of the Soviet people--a historically new human cotmnunity--toward complete
social homogeneity and total international unity. 7.'he action of this law expresses
the double nature of the historically new community--a social-class community and
an international community. It reflects a double process of development of complete
social homogeneity (comanunist equality) and affirmation of total international unity
of the multinational Soviet people. 7.'his law defines the path, direction, and means
of surmounting social-class and national differences in the Soviet people as a histo-
rically new human courtaunity, and it initiates a new staqe in development of national
relations in the USSR--a stage of gradual transformation of Soviet socialist nations
and nationalities into communist nations and nationalities, and of the Soviet people
themselves from a socialist international community of people into a cotnmunist inter-
, national comanunity of people, existing as a prototype of a future communist, nation-
less community of people.
Zbday the Soviet people--a historically new human couQnunity--occupy the leading
position among the peoples of the globe in progressive development of all mankind.
Having built the w~rld's first socialist society, they began creating a communist
society. The Soviet people are now performing a leading role in resolution of the
most important problems of national relations on the planet as well. Z"hey are a
personification of the gradual transition from international comanunities to a single
nationless community, of movement from national mankind to nationless mankind, which
will affirm itself with the victory of communism on our planet.
The following can validly be treated as the fundamental, general laws qoverning
development of the Soviet people as a historically new co~nunity: deepening inter-
nationalization of all aspects of social life in the historically new human communi-
~ ty, and on this basis, affirmation of general Soviet, international traits in the
Soviet way of life; growth of the Soviet people's demand for a share of general
material and spiritual Soviet valuables (the USSR economy as a single national
economic complex; the multinational Soviet state; the territory of the USSR; the
language of international commrunication; the multinational Soviet culture; the
Soviet way of life; the psychology of the Soviet people; the general national pride
of the Soviet people; awareness of inembership to a historically new community of
people, and others).
Arisal and then dominance of an all-Soviet internationalist value orientation
attests to signi�icant changes in the consciousness and psychology of the peoples
of the USSR, and to affirmation of international traits in thei r consciousness and
psychology.
Another general law governing the function and development of~the Soviet people--
a historically new human community--is harntionious combination of common Sovie~,
common state interests and national, republic interests in the economic, political,
and spiritual spheres. This is a law of development of the socialist multinational
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society, satisfaction of the requirements of which insures erasure of national
differences and selection of the most sensible compromises aimed at satisfying
economic, political, and spiritual interests,and promotes determination of the
priority of their realization.
_ In addition to these and other general, fundamental laws, derivatives of these
laws, particular, specific laws manifesting themselves in concrete spheres of the
social life of the Soviet people are also inherent to the Soviet people, viewed as
a historically new human community.
The following laws of function and development of the Soviet people--a historically
new human community--operate within the economic sphere:
further development and reinforcement of the USSR economy as a single national
economic complex; ,
growth in the role of specialization and cooperation of the national economies of
_ the Soviet republics, and of territorial production co~lexes;
improved, sensible distribution of productive forces;
completion of the process of equalizing the levels of economic development enjoyed
by the different Soviet republics, and so on.
The economic laws governing development of the Soviet people express an orientation
toward further economic and territorial consolidation as one of the most important
- ways for achieving total international unity of the historically new hwnan community.
Laws aimed at achieving complete social homogeneity and international unity operate
within the sociopolitical sphere: ~
further development and improvement of the historically new community's political
system;
all-out reinforcement of the Soviet federation;
further improvement of national administration, and so on.
The following laws manifest themselves in the spiritual sphere:
consolidation of the international foundations of the Soviet people's spiritual
culture ;
intensive spread of the language of internationa:~. communication;
formation of the spiritual countenance, general Soviet psychology, and consciousness
of inembership of all Soviet people in the historically new community, and so on.
As in other spheres, the laws of the Soviet people's development operating within
the spiritual sphere are derivatives of general laws. They express a need for
achieving total international unity of the Soviet people in the spiritual sphere.
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The laws governing development of the historically new community do not express
its entire essence: In the words of V. I. Lenin, the phenomenon is richer than the
law, which is "...narrow, incomplete, approximate".* Nevertheless, analysis of the
laws of the Soviet people, viewed as a historically new human commnnity, does have
great theoretical and practical siynificance. To a significant extent these laws
reflect the history of the arisal and development of the Soviet people, and they
contain the most important characteristics of the Soviet people: universality,
necessity, stability, and repeatability of relationships in the entire system. In
this case the repeatability of relationships of the Soviet people is typified by
a progressive nature, these relationships taking shape at a new, higher level every
time. This is an expression of the irreversibility of phenomena occurring in the
historically new human conrtnunity.
, As with the laws of any other social phenomena, the action of the laws governing
development of the historically new human counnunity does not always~nifest themselves
in "pure" form, directly, but rather for the most part in the form of trends. Each
particular law of the Soviet peaple exhibits itself as a trend, the potential of
which depends on the completeness with which the conditions of its action are satis-
fied. It is precisely by studying the mutual relationship existing between condi~
tions and laws that we arrive at a possibility for utilizing the latter for practical
purposes. Knawledge and consideration of the laks of the historically new human
community permit us to determine the trends of its further development.
The action of the laws governing development of the historically new human community
attests to its capability for spontaneous movement, for self-regulation, for adapta-
- tion to concrete conditions, and for self-maintenance in the course of its develop-
ment. In other words the Soviet people, viewed asa historically new human community, _
are a self-controlling subsystem of socialist society, having the capability for
self-reproduction and self-development. The main characteristic an d mechanism of
the Soviet people's self-organization is their social spontaneity, their productive
and sociopolitical activity. And nevertheless the function and deve lopment of the
historically new human corr�nunity is not spontaneous, being instead a conscious,
planned, controllable process. This process is under the conscious control of the
political system of socialist society guided by the Communist Party, and of ob-
jective phenomena in the socioeconomic and spiritual life of the Soviet people, and
it is based on an understanding of the laws of social development.
A. F. Dashdamirov
Editor in Chief of the Azerbaijan SSR Comn~unist Party
Central Com�nittee Journal KONIlKUNIST
The study of the laws governing formation and development of the Soviet people has
key theoretical and methodological significance to our comprehensive understanding
of their essence, their historical role, and their most important traits and
characteristics, in their dynamics and in their sum total. We should naturally
first consider the laws specific namely to the historically new cemanunity, and
*See Lenin, V. I., "PSS" [Complete Collected Works], Vol 38, p 140.
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typical only of it, inasmuch as at this stage of cognition of the problem under
{ discussion, the important methodological task is to surmount the presently observable,
intentional or unintentional, in some cases complete and in others partial identifi-
cation of the history af Soviet society with the history of the Sovi.et people, and
ot the laws governing development of Soviet society (and, in the end, development
of social~ism and communism) with the laws governing development of a historically
new community--the Soviet people. Ir, this case we must also avoid the opposite
extreme--examining the laws governing development of the historically new societ;~
apart from the general laws of development of the com�nunist social formation in our
- country.
It should be remembered that affirmation and development of the historically new
community is in itself one of the laws of Soviet society's development; moreov~er it
is one of the laws that embodies the main directions of socialist and co~aunist
development in the USSR. The general trends and laws of socialist social development
brouqht on fo.nnation of the S~viet people--a historically new form of social life,
expressing the international demands for development of a new society. Refracted
in the prism of social and internatior~al trends and processes typic3l of the Soviet
people, these trends and laws came to express themselves as laws inherent to the
historically new community. For example the process of formation, development, and _
further improvement of the USSR's national economic complex--the :naterial basis of
the Soviet people's unity--embodied within itself the economir~ trends and laws of
- socialist social development, and in tu~n it is one of the mo;st important laws that
is internally inherent to the historically new community.
The same can also be said for the spiritual unity of the Sovi.et people, which ex-
presses itself in the international unity of the multinationai. Soviet culture. The
latter embodies both the results of the cultural revolution that occurred in the
course of socialism's development, the results of the blossoming and drawing together
of the national cultures of fraternal peoples, and the general laws governing forma-
tion and development of socialist social consciousness, which enjoy conaentrated
expression in the international consciousnF~s and self-consc~.ousness of the Soviet
- people.
In a word, the laws of t~e historically new co~nunity are the laws of formation,
consolidation, developme-~t, and improvement of the integral social organism as it
is today; these laws are inherent namely to it, and being dependent upon the ger.eral
- laws and trends of mature socialism, they insure the integrity, stability, and co-
ordination of all classes, social groups, nations, and nationalities composing this
community .
Examining the problem under discussion from these positions, I would have to
emphasize the tremendous consolidating role played by the Soviet multinational
state in relation to the historically new community. -
Socialist government, which is a combination of a basic federal system and different
forms of national state structures, is one of the most important characi~ristics
of the Soviet people as a historically new community, which is a state community, and
not simply a soc~iopolitical one. The nations and nationalities of the USSR have
achieved, are developing, and are improving their economic, territorial-political,
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- social, sociopolitical, and spiritual unity through, among others but by no means _
- last, governmental and legal resources, through centralized coordination of the
efforts and activities of the fraternal peoples in all directions of socialist
and corrnt?unist development, through successive implementation of the Communist
Party's single economic, social, cultural, and so on policy by way of state organs
of authority and control at all levels.
Consequently we have all the grounds for suggesting that growth in the role of
ttie Soviet state in development of communism, in interaction with growth in the
Communist Party's role, is a law of development and consolidation of the histori-
cally new human conanunity's unity. The Soviet people are the subject and the
social-international basis of socialist government--that is, the laws of the histori-
, cally new community and of the Soviet multinational state are not only mutually
dependent, but they are also "mutually penetratinq": The unity and cohesion of the
~ Soviet people, led by the Communist Party, are the prerequisite of the Soviet state's
power; growth in the power of the latter determines and stimulates comprehensive
= development and improvement of the historically new comnunity.
Some of the most inportant factors characterizing the Soviet people as a state
community include the national economic complex evolved in tt~~ USSR, the inter-
, republic social-class and international relationships existing among nations and
nationalities, identical principles of organization of sociopolitical life, labor,
- and cultural, educational, scientific, and other forms of activity, the homogeneity
of the organs of authority and control, and presence of cor~on interests, goals,
and tas ks of communist construction. Improvement of these factors, which is a sign
of growth in the Soviet state's role in development of the Soviet people, expresses
itself as comprehensive reinforcement of the Soviet people's unity. T'his objective
law was reflected and affirmed in its general form in F1z~ticle 70 of the new USSR
Constitution: "The USSR is an etnbodiment of the state unity of the Soviet people,
and it unifies all nations and nationalities for the purposes of joint development
of communism. "
~ I would like to dwell specially on some laws of the Soviet people's spiritual
development. I am referring to formation of the intPrnational consciousness and
- self-consciousness of the Soviet people, which is another law of their formation
~ and unification. A community of historic importance can be said to be fully
developed and affirmed as a subject of social relations and social activity after
it acquires self-consciousness.
7.'he self-consciousness of a social community, be it a class or a nation, is always ~
an important indicator that it is fully formed, that it is stable, and that its
diverse internal ties have matured. In turn, the level and content nf the commu-
nity's collective consciousness and self-consciousness are not only an indicator
that its most important traits and characteristics are fully formed, but also a
factor of its historical activity, of its interaction With other formations.
Z'he Soviet people today are a fully evolved, fully formed comanunity of hi~toric
proportions, one of a new international type. Its consolidation was evidenced~
as would be expected, by formation of international consciousness and self-
consciousness, expressing the deep and comprehensive unity of our country's
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nations and nationalities. Affirmation of the consciousness of an international
community is a complex, contradictory process reflecting and accompanying objectively
proceeding socioeconomic, sociopolitical, and cultural integration of fraternal
peoples, integration based on trends and laws brought into play by socialist and
coirm~unist development, and particularly the centrifugal trends in development of
nations, growing internationalization of all aspects of social life, and so on~
The international consciousness and self-consciousness of the Soviet people are the
result of those irreversible socioeconomic ideological, and psychosocial processes
in the drawing together of all nations and nationalities which result in firm
establishment of general, general Soviet, and general popular characteristics in
social, sociopolitical, and spiritual life, in living and working conditions, and
in the behavior, attitudes, and value orientations of the Soviet people. Once
they are recognized, international ties and mutual dependencies, comanon traits,
and convergent characteristics crystallize in the forni of the feelings and con-
sciousness of the all-Soviet, international community, in the form of consciousness
and a feeling of inembership within the entire multinational Soviet people.
I am forced to admit with disappointment that little research has been conducted
an problems associated with formation and development of the spiritual community
of the Soviet people, as realized in a unified social consciousness and self-
consciousness that is internationalistic in spirit, nature, and content. While on
the whole the questions associated with formation, consolidation, and development
of the historically new community are being studied intensively and thoroughly,
little theoretical work has been done on these problems. We have long needed to
develop the spiritual-ideological and psychosocial aspects of international
communication and interaction more fully, and to perfoi~cn deeper, methodologically
sound research on the dialectics of national and international factors in the
culture and spiritual development of the peoples of the USSR, and the dialectics
of transformation of the people's national self-consciousness into an awareness of
international membership to the Soviet people.
The self-consciousness phenomenon is a highly complex philosophical and sociological
problem, solution of which is associated with many methodological difficulties,
including the relatively meager information we have on the genesis of social forms
of self-consciousness in communities of historic importance. In this connection one
of the most fruitful directions of research on the conscio~isness and self-conscious~
ness of the Soviet people is the genesis and, in particu]:ar, transformation of the
self-consciousness of our society's classes and nations into a whole people's,
international consciousness. There is also another aspect of the problem that is
interesting, and practically important--surmounting the awareness and feeling of
national isolation, ethnocentricism, the vestiges of nationalism and national con-
finement, and egoism; it is in the uncompromising struggle against these qualities
that the internationalistic convictions of the people and, on the basis of the
latter, the international consciousness of the masses are affirmed.
- From my point of view the main direction of research on the problem under dis-
cussion here is to thoroughly reveal the role of So~~iet patriotism and socialist
internationalism in the arisal and developa?ent of the Soviet people's self-
conscioLSness. We can distinguish at least two aspects in this direction:
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1) socialist internationalism and Soviet patriotism as the ideological-moral and
ideological-political basis of the spiritual unity of the Soviet people, as the
ideological prerequisite of their international unity; 2) the ideals and principles
of internationalism and patriotism as the means through which the internal socio-
economic, governmental-political, and spiritual unity of the Soviet people, the
unity of historical fates, and the unity of goals and tasks of the nations and
nationalities making up the community are recoqnized. In light of these issues,
research on the mechanism responsible for transformation of the ideology of inter-
nationalism and Soviet patriotism into an element of actual awareness of the
people, classes, and nations of developed socialist society and, in the end, of
the Soviet people acquires especially important significance.
The trends and laws of social development are studied by people in order tha t they
might successfully control social processes. From this point of view a fuller
idea of the laws governing formation, development, and consolidation of the Soviet
people's self-consciousness would arm the society with rich and intensive possi-
bilities for deepening the unity of the historically new co~mnunity, improving its
characteristics and typical traits, and reinforcing the friendship and brotherhood
of the peoples of the USSR, and an internationalistic moral-psychological climate
at all levels of international interaction.
G. I. Zimanas
Editor in Chief of tne Lithuanian SSR Com�nunist
Party Central Co~nittee Journal KOMMUNIST
The Soviet Constitution defines the Soviet people as a co~nunity which evolved in
a time of mature social relations "on the basis of the drawing together of all
classes and social strata, of de ~ju.re and de facto equality of all nations and
nationalities, and of their fraternal cooperation."
The Soviet people are a historically new co:nmunity uniting social groups, nati.ons,
and nationalities. The social community is the main, dominant one. But the
community of nations also has significance, and it is upon it that I would like
to dwell.
From its very first steps the Communist Farty worked for fraternal unification of
all nationalities of laborers. As early as in 1913 V. I. Lenin wrote: "While
various bourgeois parties engage in nationalistic bickering over questions of
language and so on, the workers' democracy imposes one requirement: unconditional
unity and complete fusion of the workers of all nationalities in all labor organi-
zations--professional, cooperative, conswner, educational, and all others--as a
counterweight to bourgeois nationalism in all of its forms. It is only through
such unity and fusion that we can defend democracy, defend the interests of the
workers against capital--which itself has already become international and is
growing even more so--and defend the interests of mankind's development of a
new form of life, devoid of all privileges and all forms of exploitation."*
* Lenin, V. I., "PSS" (Complete Collected Works], Vol 24, pp 118-119.
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Unity of all nationalities of laborers is both the sole possibility for opposing the ~
force of capital and the sole means for "defending the interests of mankind's
development". Is this not true today as well? Al1 Soviet nations and nationalities
have combined into a single community, but this community is undergoing further
6ocial, eaenomic, and moral-political unification, and its unity is being strength-
ened. This is the product of various objective conditions, and of the aCtion of 1
the subjective factor.
The main element of the subjective factor, the one responsible for further unifica-
tion of Soviet nations and nationalities--is the party's nationalities policy. The
most important characteristic of this policy, spelled out long ago by Lenin, is the
tremendous concern for the interests of different nations. This concern manifests
itself as consideration of economic, sociopolitical, cultural, and all other
factors.
The mutual influence of the general and particular in national life is a general
sociological process, one that manifests itself with the first steps in arisal of
nations and nationalities. Socialist internationalization qualitatively changes
this process.
One of the most important problems of the party's nationalities policy is that of
making national and international interests compati.ble. National and international
factors do not stand in contradiction to one another in socialist society, and
they are not direct opposites. Z'hey are complexly intertwined am~ong each other,
mutually penetrating one another. National factors are the source of international
factors. If the national culture were to decay, appearance of an international
culture would inevita.bly become impossible, since an international culture accumu-
lates everything that is better and progressive that is created by nations. On
the other hand an international culture fertilizes national culture. It returns
rather often to the bosom of the nations that had given birth to it, though now
it returns enrichsd and exalted by that which was acquired through international
unity.
At the same time, unity of national and international factors does not at all
signify absence of contradictions between them. In every separate case both the
nati~nal and the international may become paramount, but when national and inter-
national factors are in a state of unity, international factors play the driving
role.
A correct, scientific, internationalistic policy is the main factor for drawing
nations together and thus consolidating the unity of the Soviet people. This
factor expresses itself in the economic mutual ties existing among all peoples
of our country, in creation of a single national economic complex, in correct
exchange of personnel and their training, in development of the working class,
intelligentsia, and scientists of all n~tions in our country, in cultural coopera-
tion and exchange among peoples and nationalities of the USSR, and in governmental
cooperation among nations.
We must show concern not only for correct implementation of the party's nationality
policy but also for its deep and persuasive explanation. Z'his is especially
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important in connection with the fact that our enemies abroad distort party policy,
exerting tremendous effort to spread their falsifications. If we are to complete
these tasks, we must develop the theory of nations and international relations
further. An enormous amount of work was :done in recent years in this area. Much
attention was devoted to international relations in the party Program and in meny
other party documents.
Special note should be made of the important role played in this very serious matter
by Leonid I1'ich Brezhnev hims elf. His reports--"On the SOth Anniversary of the
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics", "Great October and the Progress of Mankind",
and "On the Draft USSR Constitution"--offer solutions to many issues associated
with development of socialist nations and national relations.
There have been many stu3ies devoted to development of international relations and
education of the laborers in the spirit of proletarian internationalism and Soviet
patriotism. They includ~ work by P. N. Fedoseyev, Yu. V. Bromley, M. P. Kim,
Ts. A. Stepanyan, G. Ye. Glezerman, I. P. Tsameryan, M. S. Dzhunusov, M. I.
Kulinchenko, S. T. Kalta;chchyan, P. M. Rogachev, M. A. Sverdlin, A. G. Agayev,
T. Yu. Burmistrova, F. T. Konstantinov, F. K. Kocharli, V. S. Semenov, V. F.
Samoylenko, L. M. Drobizzeva, L. V. Metelitsa, A. F. Dashdamirov, V. P. Sherstobitov,
M. V. Iordan, Yu. V. Arutyunyan, Ya. S. Brolish, A. S. Frish, and many others. -
At the same time there are other issues requiring further research and elaboration.
One of the most.important is that of combining national and international interests,
which has great signific,snce to practical implementation of the party's nationalities
policy, and which therefore requires extremely careful handling.
V. I. Lenin provided a f~undation for solving this problem in his time. In his
theses on the socialist revoli~~ion and the right of nations to self-determination,
he wrote: "In the same way that mankind can arrive at a classless state only
following a transitory period of dictatorship of the oppressed class, mankind
can arrive at inevitable fusion of nations only following a transitory period of
complete liberation of all oppressed nations--that is, their freedom of secession."*
Lenin wrote this in 1916. His statement became a guideline for our party's entire
nationalities policy. He demanded not suppression of the national in behalf of the
international, but a drawing together of nations resulting from their blossoming,
and blossoming of the international community through the drawing together of
nations. What we need, Lenin said in his Program of the Russian Comm~unist Party
(of bolsheviks) in 1919, is "special carefulness in relation to national sentiment."**
In 1921 he once again warned his comrades that the nationalities question "is,
without exaggeration, a question of worldwide importance. We must be extremely
careful in this area. What we do will have an impact as far away as in India and
the East, there is no room for joking here, we must be cautious a thousand ti.mes
over.*** As early as in 1922 he said the following in an interview granted to a
*Lenin, V. I., "PSS," Vol 27, p 256. Italics mine--G. Z.
Ibid., Vol 33, p 94.
Ibid., Vol 53, p 190.
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correspondent of the OBSERVER and MANCHESTER GUARDIAN: "Our experience has firmly
persauded us that only tremendous concern for the interests of different nations
can eliminate the grounds for conflicts, eliminate mutual mistrust, eliminate the
fear of various intrigues, and create that trust, especially in laborers and
peasants speaking different lanauages, without which both peaceful relations
among peoples and successful development of all that is valuable in modern civiliza-
tion would be absolutely impossible."*
- I may have gone overboard with quotations, but I feel it necessary to recall these
of Lenin's statements concerning international relations, since we still encounter
differences in the approaches to making national and international interests compati-
ble. Some authors clearly understate the role of national factors while others tend
to exaggerate them. Such viewpoints are subjected to criticism in our literature.
But we sometimes come across statements worded in such a way that the author's
position allows for different interpretations. We should turn serious attention
to this problem. '
The report by M. I. Kulichenko states: "Marxism-Leninism rejects bath the inter-
pretation of their relationship (the relationship between national and international
factors--~. Z.) as parallel factors, ones independent of or.e another and, all the
more so, opposing each other, and interpretation of changes in this relationship as
displacement of that which is national by that which is international."** This is
entirely correct. No one can argue against this. But a few pages earlier the author
states: "The realm of that which is narrowly and specifically national gradually
decreases, th~ough it will inevitably continue to exist until nations wither away."***
Arisal of common traits in the life of different nations is one of the main achieve-
ments of internationalization, and its significance to progress is tremendous. But
it is not directed against the national. Here lies the essence of Lenin's dialectics
of the national and the international.
The author does not e~lain what he means by the "realm of that which is narrowly
and specifically national." This, after all, is a very broad issue. If he means
nationalistic phenomena, then he is doubtlessly correct. Surmounting specific
features that are nationalistic is a progressive process, all that nationlism affirms
is harmful, and the party cannot support this. But that which is specifically
national is far from always nationalistic.
How do we classify, for example, riational language? That it is specifically -
national does not elicit any doubt from my point of view, but is it really decreasing
in importance? The contrary is true: After all, the Soviet period is one of
fluorishing language for all nations, even the lesser ones. The same goes for
progressive traditions, which are not decreasing but are developing in the process ~
of socialist internationalization, and sometimes even transforming into international
traditions in the conditions of Soviet society.
* Ibid., Vol 45, p 240.
See the text of the report, p 22.
Ibid., p 19. Italics mine--G. Z,
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National differences may cause separation. But we cannot look at the influence of
specifically national factors one-sidedly--under the influence of inte~cnational
factors, they may promote unity whiZe still remaining national. Pushkin and Tolstoy,
Ivan Franko, Yanka Kupala, Shota Rustaveli, Nizami Gyandzhevi, and many others are
not losing their specifically national character; instead, they are becoming the
property of all nations, and they play a tremendous unifying role in the Life of
nations.
Kulichenko later asserts that "in a number of cases that which is international is
also that which is national, something that evolved as specifically national but
then became common to some or many other peoples."* I think that these words were
not fully thought out either. Why does the author say "in a number of cases"?
Can we really come up with any example of something that is international which
was born and which arose in nationless conditions?
' Communists are fighting against those national factors which separate people, boldly
scrappingthat which keeps people from drawing together. But under the influence of
international factors, national factors may also cause convergence. ~~~ists
support such factors, they do not refer to them as divergent factors, and they do
not feel them to be barriers. No two nationalities are alike. Nations not only
borrow from one another, they also give to one another, and this process continues
as long as a nation exists. As long as a nation remains alive, it creates, and it
makes its contribution to the common treasurehouse of the peoples--that is, to that
which is international. -
, This is the only way this question is approached in our party's decisions and in the
lite~.;ture. However, we still encounter dissension from this approach. Thus some-
times it is asserted that development of that which is international supplants the
national, and that this is a progressive phenomenon. We all applaud development
of the international, but the international does not simply supplant the national;
instead, it promotes its proper development, development of those national factors
which become international. This is why we always refer to blossoming and drawing
together in the same breath, tying these phenomena in together, rather than placing
them i.n opposition to one another. We can, of course, and must discriminate between
_ these two aspects of development, but we should not separate them and contrast them.
This is why I feel it important to adhere in this issue to V. I. Lenin's statements
- and our most important party documents, which always pair blossoming with drawing
together.
Another, no less acute issue arising in connection with the relationship between
the national and the international is that of the drawing together and fusion of
nations.
Here is what was said about this at an all-~union scientific-practical conference in
Tbilisi in October 1976 by CPSU Central Co~nittee Politburo Candidate Comrade
E. A. Shevardnadze: "The drawing together of nations and their blossoming are the
* Ibid., p 44. Italics mine--G. Z.
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principal trends in development of the world law of socialism in the are2~ of
national relations. This is a law of historical proportions, the significance of
which is growing even more in the conditions of developed socialism. Practice shows
that we cannot confuse the concepts 'the drawi.ng together of nations' with their
'fusioA'.. Every historical era of national relations is typified by unique features
inherent only to it. The blossoming and intensive drawinq together of nations
correspond mainly to the era of developed socialism. Attempts are sometimes made
to deteratine what is most unportant in V. I. Lenin's doctrine on nations and
national relations--that which is national or that which is international,
blossoming or drawing together. We would have to answer quite categorically that ~
Marx and Engels bequeathed to their successors that in addition to promoting the
liberty and comprehensive development of nations, they were also to promote their
unity, as expressed in the slogan 'Proletariat of All Countries, Unite:'. The unity
of the working class was and continues to be one of the most important prerequisites _
of this historical mission. As with Marx and Engels, Lenin placed solidarity and
unity of the proletariat of all nations and nationalities at the apex of the struggle
for socialism and communism."*
- The CPSU Central Committee decree "On Further Improvement of Ideological and �
Political Indoctrination" states that the task is to "nurture, in all Soviet people,
a~sense of pride for the socialist fatherland, of inviolable fraternal friendship
among the peoples of the USSR, of respect for national worth and national culture,
of intolerance of all manifestations of nationalism. Pr~mote further reinforcement
of the zaritz~ and the soZidarity of the Soviet peopZe" (italics mine--G. Z. But
some authors still continue to raise the issue of the fusion of the nations, which
is not raised in any Central Committee documents .
The difference between the terms "international" and "internationalistic" is an
iinportant question, one pertaining not only to fonn but also to content. We borrowed
the term "international" from the peoples of the West, where it has only one
meaning--international. We interpret the word "international" as essentially de- r
scribi.nq phenomena associated with internationalism. However, Lenin's term "inter-
nationalistic" has recently been gaining greater acceptance as a synonym for "inter-
national". Z'his is more logical. Something that is "internationalistic" is an
act which an internationalist would commit.
Despite the fact that this~is already the 7th decade of the Soviet government's
existence, the vestiges of bourgeois nationalism have still not disappeared. They
are camouflaged to a greater extent today, and they have ceased playing the role of
vestiges having a clearly anti-Soviet nature, but those which can be passed off as
patriotism, as concern for national interests are beginning to manifest themselves
to an increasingly gre ater degree.
Although these vestiges are being manifested among a smaller number of people, they
have not become less dangerous, since they do tend to amplify the anti-Soviet
propaganda of capitalist countries in the ideological struggle.
*"Voprosy internatsional'nogo vospitaniya trudyashchikhsya" [Problems of In'cer-
national Education of Laborersl, Moscow, 1977, p 10.
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The fight against nationalistic vestiges is one of the most important prerequisites
for further unification of the Soviet people.
' V. P. Sherstobitov
USSR Academy of Sciences Institute of USSR History _
For practical purposes we still lack special studies of the Soviet people inter-
' preted as a governmental-political comnimity of people. M. P. Kim's productive
thesis that the people are also citizens of the same state,i which oriented the
attention of researchers upon this issue, was unfortunately partially or completely
~ forgotten. As a rule lawyers, who have done much to describe the essence of the
Soviet whole people's state, deal with this topic apart from the historically new
community.2 Only V. M. Kuritsyn and G. I. Litvinova attempted to demonstrate the
influence of the Soviet state (including the whole people's state) upon formation
, and consolidation of the historically new community.3 But there is also another
aspect of research that evades scientists--research on further improvement of
' union and national statehood, which is, on one hand? an expression of the
' growing homogeneity of the Soviet people and, on the other hand, a factor actively
~ influencing dev~elopment and consolidation of the historically new community.
E. V. Tadevosyan and M. I. Kulichenko came closer than others to this issue in
their treatment of internationalization of Soviet national statehood.4 Srnne of
the mutual relationships existing between this phenomenon and development of the
' historically new community are descri.bed in the third edition of the "HiGtory of
the Development of National Statehood in the USSR".5 But the bulk of the literature
devoted to the new constitutions of the USSR and the union and autonomous republics
com~letely avoids this issue.
The problem of inethodological interest to us was posed by the 25th CPSU Congress.
The Central Comnittee's accountability report to the congress states: "An important
~ direction in all the work of communism's development is comprehensive development
of Soviet ~ociety's political system. 7.'his means improving socialist statehood,
developing socialist democracy, reinforcing the legal basis of state and social life,
, and raising the activity of social organizations."6
The Soviet federal system does not in fact remain constant; it reacts sensitively
to the concrete historical conditions under which the society is developing. The
experience of history has demonstrated that "the union of socialist republics is .
the most viable and sophisticated form of a multi.national state, harnaniously com-
bining the interests of the whole society with the interests of every nation",~
and that at the stage of developed socialism, union and national statehood represent _
effective, time-tested forms of Soviet society's social progress. However, their
further development is an objectively necessary process, one under the control of
the Comanunist Party. "Developing Soviet statehood and socialist democracy," L. I.
Brezhnev said, "the party and government are striving to persistently follow Lenin's
policy of improving the state machinery and raising the excellence of its work.
Every step in developtnent of productive forces and culture, according to Lenin, _
must be accompanied by improvement in our Soviet system."8
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Mature socialism signifies a new stage in the development, consolidation, and im-
provement of Soviet federalism, of the Soviet whole people's state. In connection
with formation and development of its whole people's character, growth in the number
and complexity of problems which only the society as a whole can solve, and further
social and international integrat~~on, the socialist federated state is improving
today in the direction of a stronger unionwide basis and intensification of the
state's economic, organizational, c-ultural, and educational activities.9
Basing itself on the principle of democratic centralism, the union state concentrates
the key elements of management of social life within its hands,but it is increasingly
encouraging national governments totake a part in this management, in exercising
common international functions, thus stimulating their internationalization. This
process is one of the expressions of internationalization of all spheres of social
life ~:ithout exception, which has assumed broad scope in the conditions of mature
socialism. Internationalization in the area of national relations is inseparable
from the blossoming and all-out progress of Soviet peoples, in the same way that
this blossomi.ng is inseparable from the drawing together and consolidation of the
international basis of their life. The more intensively every national republic
undergoes economic and social development," said L. I. Brezhnev, "the more clearly
the very process of internationalization of our entire life manifests itself."10
Today's tremendous growth in the amount of work required in the management of the
society's economic, social, and cultural life, and the need for raising production
effectiveness and uniting the achievements of the scientific-technical revolution
with the advantages of the socialist economic system require that we seek ways to _
sensi.bly redistribute competency between the USSR and the union and autonomous
republics, and among local government organs. Such redistribution increases the -
role of the national government in the development of communism, makes its partici-
pation in solution of general unionwide problems more substantial, and intensifies
the international basis of its activities. Union republic legislation, which is
within the sphere of joint competency of the USSR and the republics, is continually
increasing in its importance. This attests to further improvement of the forms of
national government. Z'he goal of such improveu?ent is to reveal new possibilities
such foxtns may offer in promoting comprehensive progress of individual nations.
This in turn accelerates the drawing together of the nations, promotes deeper and
fuller realization of their national and international interests, and increases the
contribution made by all peoples of the USSR to the common goal of co~nunist
development.
And so the stage of developed socialism is a stage of further intensification of
interaction between union and national governments in solving the enorn?ous common
problems of communist development, a stage of reinforcement of the tinity of union
and national governments.
It is clear from this that the governmental unity of the Soviet people is undergoing
further reinforcement and governmental-political integration in the conditions of
mature socialism. In general form, this process has the following manifestations.
First, the whole people's essence of the Soviet federated state, growth in the
sociopolitical unity of the Soviet people, progressive drawing together of nations,
and so on all raised the role of factors having universal, international, common
- significance in the activities of all forms and types~of socialist governments.
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Second, the effectiveness of the union government's activity aimed at solving common
problems is growing in intensity due to broad participation of national gonernment
organs in solution of these problems, and due to development of joint union-republic
competency.
Third, the high level of internationalization of the economic, social, and cultural
life of mature socialist society, which is responsible for greater interaction
between union and national governments, opened up new possibilities for further
blossoming of nations, since concentration of the efforts of the entire federation's
organs upon multiplyin.g the economic and cultural potential of the Soviet people as
a whole concurrently broadens the base for comprehensive development of every
nation and nationality. This means not "attenuation" of national statehood in the
present era (some Soviet authors have unfortunately defended this thesis), but
fuller, organic inclusion of national governments in work on general problems,
and through this, a greater role for them in solving specifically national problems.
Fourth, the governmental-political superstructure, the Soviet whole people's state, .
is having an ever-increasing influence upon reinforcement of the economic, socio-
political, cultural, and ideological foundation for development of the Sovi.et
people as a community, and upon consolidation of their international unity. Reali-
zing its international essence, the Soviet whole people's state is actively utilizing
the foreign political conditions to develop the historically new community--it is
strengthening the unity of countries in the socialist fraternity in behalf of com-
prehensive progress of the Soviet people, it is offering constant support to the
world process of liberation, it is persistently supporting a line of peaceful co-
existence among states with different social structures, and it is marching in the
advance guard in the struggle for international detente and for preservation and
consolidation of peace. The following premise of the CPSU Central Com�nittee decree
on preparations for the 50th anniversary of the USSR is confirming itself in practice:
"Development of communism is being accompanied by growth in the significance of the
USSR as a historically fully justified state form for the joint struggle of free
peoples to achieve the goals of the party program and attain communist ideals.'~11
' Because the problem "The Soviet Whole People's State and the Historically New
Community" has not yet evolved into an independent direction of scientific research,
many problems requiring study are arising. Among them, the following have priority
significance:
interaction between the stages of the development of Soviet federalism and the
pr~cess of formation and consolidation of the historically new communi ty;
the role of the unionwide state in sociopolitical and international unification
of the Soviet people;
change in the content of the functions performed by union and national governments
in the process of formation and development of the historically new community;
growth in the unity of union and national governments, and the historically new -
community;
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the relationship between general, international factors and specific, national
factors in the activities of national states in connection with different stages
of development of the historically new cotmnunity; ,
internat~.onal traits of the Soviet national state;
the activities of the union and national states aiiaed at creating favorable foreign
political conditions for the labor and sociopolitical activity of ~he Soviet people;
development of Soviet democracy as the principal way for improving union and national
_ statehood; '
the guiding role of the CPSU in development of the political system of Sovi_et society,
ir. reinforcement of the Soviet whole people's state, and in governmental-political
unification of the Soviet people.
Footnotes
1. See Kim, M. P., "Sovetskiy narod--novaya istoricheskaya obshchnost [The
Soviet People--a Historically New Community], A7oscow, 1972, p 6. ;
2. See "Gosudarstvo i demokratiya v period postroyeniya razvitogo sotsializma"
- [State and Democracy in the Period of Formation of Development Socialism],
, Moscow, 1974; "XXV s"yezd KPSS i dal'neysheye razvitiye Sovetskogo gosudarstva, ;
demokratii i prava" [The 25th CPSU Congress and Further Development of the
Soviet State, Democracy, and Lawl, I~bscaw, 1977; Lepeshkin, A. I., "Leninskiye
idei o Sovetakh i ikh v~oploshcheniye v zhizn' (k 60-letiyu obrazovaniya
Sovetskogo gosudarstva)" [Lenin's Ideas on the Soviets and Their Realization
(On the 60th Anniversary of the Soviet State)], Moscow, 1977, etc.
~ 3. See the appropriate sections of the book "Sovetskiy narod--novaya istoricheskaya
obshchnost' lyudey. Stanovleniye i razvitiye" [The Soviet People--a Historically
' New Human Community. Formation and Development], I~bscow, 1975, pp 123-136,
336-366. .
4. See Tadevosyan, E. V., "Sovetskaya natsional'naya gosudarstvennost [Soviet
National Statehood], Moscow, 1972, pp 200, 223; Kulichenko, M. I., "U'krepleiiiye
- internatsional'nogo yedinstva sovetskogo obshchestva" [Reinforcement of the
International Unity of Soviet Society], Kiev, 1976, pp 220-246.
5. "Istoriya natsional'no-gosudarstvennogo stroitel'stva v SSSR" [History of the
Developmes~t of National Statehood in the USSR], 3d Edition, Nbscow, 1979.
6. "XXV s"yezd Kommunisticheskoy partii Sovetskogo Soyuza. Stenugr. otchet" ,
[The 25th Congress of the Couununist Party of the Soviet Union. Minutes];
Vol 1, Nbscow, 1976, p 106. -
7. See "Ob ideologicheskoy rabote KPSS. Sb. dokumentov" [The Ideological Work
of the CPSU. Collection of Docinnents], Nbscow, 1977, p 357.
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8. Brezhnev, L. I., "Leninskim kursom. Rechi i stat'i" [Following Lenin's Course.
Speeches and Articles], Vol 2, Moscow, 1970, p 577.
9. See Brezhnev, L. I., "Leninskim kursom. Recni i stat'i," Vol 6, Moscow, 1978,
p 383; "Konstitutsiya (Osnovnoy Zakon) Soyuza Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh
Respublik" [The Constitution (Fundamental Law) of the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics], Moscow, 1977, pp 26-30, etc.
10. Brezhnev, L. I., "Leninskim kursom. Rechi i stat'i," Vol 4, Moscow, 1975, p 59.
11. See "Ob ideologicheskoy rabote KPSS," p 358.
.
E. V. Tadevosyan -
Nbscow State Institute of International Relations, USSR
Ministry of Foreign Affairs
The question as to the time of arisal of the historically new community did not
attract the persistent attention of researchers until the first half of the 1970's.
Some authors assErt, and continue to assert, that the Soviet people, viewed as a
historically new community, evolved (basically evolved, in the words of many later
authors) as early as in the second half of the 1930's, when socialism emerged
victorious in the USSR and the foundations of socialism were built. Other authors
based themselves, and continue to base themselves, on the premise that such a commu-
nity did not evolve until the 1960's, when tnature, developed socialist society was
built in our country. The second point of view appears more correct and justified
' to me, and to M. I. Kulichenko as well. It is no accident that the Preamble of the
_ USSR Constitution interprets formation of the historically new htmian couanunity as
one of the mos t important criteria of developed socialism, and of maturity of its
social relations. It is also important to turn our attention to the fact that in
his work "A Historic Landmark on the Road to Communism" L. I. Brezhnev i.nterpreted
formation of this community as an indication namely of developed socialist socxety:
"The most important indicator of developed socialism in our country, of the growing
social homogeneity of Soviet society, and of the triumph of the CPSU's nationalities
policy was formation of a historically new social and international community--the
Soviet people."*
The historically new community is a phenomenon typical namely of developed socialism.
Its formation marks a qualitatively higher level of social anC international unity
of Soviet society than that which is achieved as a result of elimination of the
' classes of exploitation and attai!unent of sociopolitical and ideological unity of
the society and friendship among nations--that is, it is the final result of the period
of transition from capitalism to socialism and to creation of socialism's founda-
tion. This period, which is the first stage in fornwtion of the historically new
community, results not in this coaununity itself as an integral phenomenon, but only
as its precondition and foundation, on the basis of which in the following stage--the
stage of completion of the construction of socialism and of developed socialist
society--we witness consolidation of all socialist classes and social groups,
* Brezhnev, L. I., "Leninskim kursom" [Following Lenin's Course], Vol 6, Nbscow,
' 1978, p 626.
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of all socialist nations and nationalities into a new, more intimate, and higher -
community than the state community of laborers in our country--a historical, social,
and international co~nunity.
The historically new society of Soviet people arose only on the basis of more or
less lengthy development of socialism on its own foundation. As we know, this
development began following completion of the transitory period and the victory
of socialism. As socialist society develops, the entire set of social relations
is restructured i.nto a colZectiv~e form inherent to socialism, and it is with thi~
that the arisal and formation (namely arisal and formation, and not dLvelopment,
since the process of the phenomenon's formation, its evolution, is not yet ended)
of the historically new community is inseparably associated.
From my point of view the position taken by those authors who recognize two stages
in formation of the historically new community and who concurrently assert that such _
a community arises as early as at the end of the first stage is extremely unfounded
and contradictory. If their position is correct, then the reference in the second
staqe should be not to formation but to development of this community. -
_ It is prec:.sely in the course of construction of developed socialist society that a
unionwide economy forms as a single national economic complex; the union of the
working class and peasartry develops into an inviolable union of the working class,
the kolkhoz peasantry, and the socialist intelligentsia, with the role of the
working class being dominant and ever-increasing; full and final solution of the
~ nationalities question, the most intimate unity, comprehensive blossoming, and .
~ constant drawing together of Soviet nations and nationalities are achieved; the
state of dictatorship of the proletariat transfortns into a whole people's state,
- and the party of the working class transforms into a party of all Soviet people.
- All of these, and other processes, are inseparable from that of formation of the _
hist~rically new community. The formation of the Soviet whole people's state and
of the party of all the people endsonly with creation of mature socialism, and it
is only from this moment on that it would be correct to refer to their birth; in
precisely the same way, the Soviet people, viewed as a new social and international
community, having.passed through not one but two stages in its formation--both a
transitory period and a period of creation of developed socialism--arose in this
form, as an integral phenomenon of a qualitatively new nature, mainly in the time
of mature, developed socialism.
Formation of the historically new community is one of the most important socio-
political indicators of the maturity of soci.alism and its social relations. This
community represents a stage of the new society's maturity in which the entire -
' aggregate of sociaZ relations is restructured on the basis of collective principles
inherent to socialism. The Soviet people, viewed as a new social and international
community of people, embod y with special clarity the most important distinguishing
features of developed socialist society--the organic integrity and dynamic nature of
the so~-ia1 system, its political stability, and its inviolable internal unity.
Discussing the time of arisal of the historically new community, in my opinion we
must account for the fact that although the concept "the Soviet, people" was broadly
employed both in the 1930's and later on, neverth2less the refe:rence at that time
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was not to the Soviet people as a new social and international cor~:nunity or Soviet
people. In this ccnnection we must distinguish between the Soviet people as a
governmental community of our country's laboring public and the Soviet people as a
new social and international community of Soviet people, representing an indissoluble
alloy of all classes and social groups, of all nation~ and nationalita.es, and of all
Soviet people, irrespective of their social and national background. 'I'he latter
marks a qualitatively higher level of Soviet society's unity, typical of mature
socialism, of government representing all the people, of a whole people's democracy.
Quite rightfully, the party ascribes forniation of a hi.storically new social and
' international corununity of people in our country not to the 1930's-1940's, but
precisely to the 1960's, when our society entered a stage of developed, mature
socialism.
The importance of deeply analyzing the basic laws governing development of the -
historically new community cannot be doubted, but there has been an obvious lack
of research on this problem, and the approach to its solution lacks unity. Fre-
quently, all laws that may apply to Soviet society are interpreted as laws acting
ugon development of the Soviet people as a new community. With this approach,
however, the problem loses its specificity, and the ~
Soviet people as a community are identified, directly or indirectly but in both
cases incorrectly, with Soviet society. On the other hand the Soviet people, viewed
as a historically new community, and the laws govezning their development are asso-
ciated in the most intima~e fashion, inseparably with all aspects of Soviet society
and its laws. Therefore it would hardly be fruitful to seek any sort of absolutely
specific laws for development of the Soviet people as a historically new community .
In my opinion the correct approach to determining the basic, driving laws of the
Soviet people's development presupposes consideration of at least the following
points: First, this law must express the socialist essence and the collectivistic
and internationalistic nature of the Soviet people as an invi.olable community of a11 _
classes and strata, of all nations and nationalities, of all members of developed
_ socialist society; second, this law must be brought into play through the basic
- cont~adiction of the new community, viewed as a structurally complex formation--a
_ contradiction between tnat which is general (all-Soviet, international) and that
which is specific (class, national), and reflects the general line of its resolution;
~ third, this law must determine what is most important in development of the Soviet
peoole as a whole, and not of just some specific structural component, or just a
particular aspect, sphere, and so on; fourth, this law must lie at the basis of _
the Soviet people's developcnent as a new community in all stages--from the communi-
ty's arisal to the historically unavoidable withering away of this form of social
progress as well.
In my opinion all of these requirements are satisfied by the law of further consoli-
dation of the social and international unity, of the solidarity of the Soviet people,
which is the foundation of the historically new community's development. This law
reflects the main trend of our country's social development--intensifiration of
Soviet society's social homogeneity on the basis of the drawing together of classes,
social groups, nations, and. nationalities, elimination of social-class differences, _
and internationalization of social life. At the end of February 1980 L. I. Brezhnev
once again P*~nhasized in a speech to voters of the Moscow's Baumanskiy election
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district that "further consolidation of the unity, the.solidarity of Soviet society"*
is one of the trends of the development of social relations under mature socialism.
The role of union and national Soviet government in the arisal, formation, and
development of the Soviet people as a historically new comQaunity is extremely im- .
portant. We should distinguish two aspects in this issue: a) the role of the
socialist essence and int.ernationalistic nature of Soviet government, and its
political fr~undation--t;ie soviets and Soviet democracy; b) the role of national
forms of Soviet government---the Soviet federation and Soviet autonomy.** The
socialist, class, and internationalistic essence of Soviet government--that seen
at both the union and the republic, national level--is doubtlessly decisive to
the formation and development of the Soviet people, though those forms which ade-
quately embodied such an essence in the concrete historic conditions of our country
are also very important.
The class nature of Soviet government predetermines its socialist, collectivistic,
and international essence. It embodies and upholds the unity and inseparability of
the fundamental inte.rests and goals of thQ k~orking class and laborers of all
nationalities, and it is fighting for the complete triumph of the internationalistic
ideals of communism. The soviets are the most important and largest political or-
ganizations of Soviet society--they united and continue to unite labflrers of all ;
nationalities on an international class basis. V. I. Lenin said that "the Soviet
Republic unites laborers of all nations and defends the interests or the laborers
irrespective of national membership."*** The dec~aration forming ~he USSR, adopted _
at the end of 1922 by the First Congress of the So~~iets of the USSR, also .~ated _
that the very structure of Soviet government, which is international by its class
nature, encourages the laboring masses of the Soviet republics to unify into one
socialist family.****
The class, socialist nature of Soviet government determined and continues to
determine the general orientation of its activities in the spirit of revolutionar,y .
transformation and further development of all social relations on collectivistic
and internationalistic principles. It insures creation and consolidation of the
- international union of the working class, peasantry, and intelligentsia, the domi-
nant role of the working class in this union and in all social life, and the
leading and guiding role of the Communist Party as the core of the entire political
system and the state and social organizations. All of this had and continues to have _
primary, decisive significance in the formation and development of the Soviet people
as a historicall~~ new community.
Emphasizing the decisive role of the socialist essence and internationalistic nature ~
of the dictatorship of the proletariat in solution of the nationalities problem, ~
V. I. Lenin noted in the very first years of Soviet rule that "the national struggle,
not only iri the form of pogroms,which even the most democratic bourgeois republic
* Brezhnev, L. I., "Nash kurs--mirnoye sozidaniye" [Our Course--Peaceful Creation],
Moscow, 1980, p 6.
I am not referring to the broad aspect of this problem here, namely the role of _
the Soviet state as the chief iunplement for building socialism and co~?unism in the
course of `:ne Soviet community's formation and development.
***Lenin, ~t. I., "PSS" [Complete Collected Works], Vol 36, p 536.
See "~"yezdy Sovetov SSSR v postanovleniyakh i rezolyutsiyakh" [Congresses of
the Soviets of the USSR in Decrees and Resolutions], N#oscow, 1939, p 19.
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cannot spare us from, but also in the form of petty but all-absorbing bickering,
has almost disappeared. The causes of this are: 1) the interest, attention, and
all the spiritual forces of the workers and the laboring peasantry are wholly ab-
sorbed by the great struggle against the bourgeoisie, this struggle unifying the
laborers of all nations; 2) the dictatorship of the proletariat is crushing the
'freedom' of action cf the bourgeoisie, the~petty bourgeoisie, and the bourgeois
intelligentsia, this being the freedom to use the power, influence, and knowledge of -
the bourgeoisie to inflame the class struggle."*
Y`he internationalistic nature of Soviet government enjoyed its diverse manifesta-
- tion in the course of development of nations and goverr.ments in our country: in
successive elimination of all fonns of social and national oppression; in strict
and unfailing iunplen~entation of the principle of self-determination of nations in
the interests of their free development and ever-closer convergence and unification;
in total national equal rig'r?ts; in voluntary unification of all peoples into a single
multinational state; in the guarantee that all nationalities residing in a tightly
delimited area would have the possibility for creating their own national govern-
ments; in attentive consideration and harmonious combination of the interests of all
Soviet people, of the USSR as a whole, and the interests of each nation, each re-
public; in successive implementation of the principle of democratic centralism in
the development of Soviet nations and governments, and so on.
~ Being socialist and internationalistic by its essence, the Soviet government repre-
sents the political power of laborers of all nationalities residir.g within a given
union or autonomous republic, autonomous region, or autonomous district, and not
only of the nations or nationalities after which they are named. A Soviet citizen,
no matter which republic he resides in and no matter what nation or nationality he
belongs to, is a full citizen of the unified USSR. Z'his is docim?ented by the -
fundamental constitutional principles of our structure (articles 33 and 34 of the
USSR Constitution). This is a manifestation of the internationalism of Soviet
statehood and socialist democracy.
Internationalism is an inseparable property of Soviet statehood at all stages of its -
- development. But the degree to which the international essence of Soviet statehood
was embodied in different stages of our country's development did not remain the
- same. In inseparable association with deepening democracy of Soviet government, the
internationalism of this government deepened, and the forms and methods of manifesta-
tion and expression of the democratic and internationalistic essence of Soviet state-
hood developed and improved.
In the conditions of developed socialism, of complete and final resolution of the
nationalities question, of formation of a'.storically new community of people--
the Soviet people, and of affirmation of a whole people's socialist democracy, inter-
nationalism is being emhodied in Soviet government even more fully and deeply. Today
the USSR, which is a socialist whole people's state, expresses the will and interests
of workers, peasants, and the intelligentsia, of the laborers of all na�cions and
nationalities in our country. The new level of embodiment of the internationalistic
*Lenin, V. I., "PSS," Vol 51, pp 219-220.
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nature of Soviet statehood is reflected in transformation of the political founda-
tion of the USSR--the soviets of labor deputies--into the soviets of people's �
deputies; in reinforcement of the unity of the multinational state, and the unity
of the union government and the national governments of the republics; in constitu-
tional documentation of the premise that the USSR represents the governmental unity
af the Soviet people, and unifies all nations and nationalities for the purposes of ~
joint development of cotrmlunism. Correspondingly, Lenin's internationalistic princi-
ples of the Soviet multinational state, which were spelled out to their full extent
for the first time in an expanded definition of this state in the new [7SSR Constitu-
tion, are invested with deeper and broader content: "The Union of Soviet Socia.list
Republics is a unified union multinational state, formed on the basis of the
principle of socialist federalism, as a result of free self-determination of nations
and voluntary unification of equal Soviet socialist republics."
The Soviet forms of national government are significant in the aspect of the problem
under examination here mainly because they represent successful solution of one of !
the tasks V. I. Lenin and the party posed in creating the USSR on a scientifically
grounded basis--that of "finding such governmental forms of the union and such a
relationship between the rights of all-union organs and the republics which would
most fully insure successful unification."* It is well known that Vladimir 21'ich
Lenin has the great historical credit for discovering and scientifically documenting
the Soviet forms of national government--the Soviet federation and Soviet autonomy,
and for providing the immediate guidance to practical development of these forms.
"V. I. Lenin completely resolved the issue of national and state relations in the
conditions of the dic*_atorship of the proletariat, he provided dire~t guidance to
development of socialist statehood, and he provided a great deal of help to co~ranunists
in all republics."** Following the road indicatec: by V. I. Lenin, under the guidance
of the CPSU the Soviet people became a model of just resolution of the nationalities
question to all the world.***
Being a Soviet socialist multinational state, the USSR is the governmental basis for -
formation and development of the Soviet people as a historically new community, and
as a Soviet union federation, the USSR is the governmental form of formation and
development of this community. In turn, affirmation of the new social and inter-
national community of Soviet people was the most i.mportant factor of the Soviet
multinational state's consolidation, expansion of its social base, and reinforcement
of its indestructible unity. The historically new couanunity became the social basis
- of the Soviet multinational whole people's state.
The Soviet people are an organic union an3 a harmonious combination of general and
specific factors, of international and national interests. This is why proper combi-
nation of international and national interests in the Soviet multinational state
had and continues to have the most important significance to formation of unified
multinational Soviet society and to its further development and international
* Brezhnev, L. I., "Leninskim kursom," Vol 4, pp 46-47.
CPSU Central Co~nittee Decree "On Preparation for the 100th Anniversary of the
Birth of Vladimir I1'ich Lenin," Moscow, 1968, p 14.
CPSU Central Committee Decree "On the 110th Anniversary of the Birth of Vladimir
I1'ich Lenin," Moscow, 1979, p 7.
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unification. The Soviet federation plays an especially important role in this task,
since this governmental form has corresponded and continues to correspond in the best
way possible in our country to the need for bo~_h bringing all peoples closer together
and for insuring free and complete development and blossoming of each of them.
Competency is distributed in the most sensible way bEtween the union government and
the governments of the republic depending on the concrete conditions and the tasks
of socialist and coresnunist construction at every stage of the Soviet multinational
state's development. It is important to note in this ease that as the functions of
the Soviet multinational state develop and the volume of its activities expands,
we witness a dual process of increasing centralization in regard to problems having
all-union, international significance, and concurrent expansion of the independence
of the republics in terms of both general an~ specific tasks and ac~ni.nistrative
functions. In socialism, these are two aspects of the same process of implementing, _
reinforcing, and developing the principles of democratic centralism and socialist
federalism in the development of the national governments.
The international unity of the Soviet multinational state is bei.ng consolidated on
the basis of proper combination of national and international interests, and harmon-
ious unification of republic government and union government, with the latter
playing the leading role.
All of this is expresse3 especially clearly and graphically in the USSR Constitution
according to which solution of the problems in organizing the national government
would "insure a truly democratic combination of the common interests of ~he multi-
national union and the interests of each republic forming within it, and insure
comprehensive blossoming and continuous drawing together of all nations and nationali-
~ ties in our country."*
I. B. Berkhin
USSR Academy of Sciences Institute of USSR History
M. I. Kulichenko's report is very interesting from my point of view. It provides a
thorough, qualified historiographic analysis of the literature, and it touches upon
the laws governing the formation and function of a new social and international
community of people in our country--the Soviet people. The author suggested many
interesting and original ideas on these laws in his report.
47e would have to agree with the basic premises suggested by the report's author.
The historically new com�nunity evolved and is now functioning oi1 the basis of the
general laws governing development of socialism and communism, and following the
specific laws inherent to the historically new comanunity. M. I. Kulichenko correctly
emphasizes the tie existing between the laws governing formation and operation of the
historically new community and the entire system of laws of Soviet society's develop-
ment.
* Brezhnev, L. I., "Leninskim kursom. Rechi i stat'i" [Following Lenin's Course.
Speeches and Articles], Vol 6, p 383.
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I would like to emphasize that arisal of the historically new human community is an
objective law of socialist development in our country, an3 this comanunity's evolution _
and operation are dependent mainly on the general laws of socialist and co~nunist ~
development, and on development of classes and nations in the course of socialist
and communist development.
Formation of the new community is the result of highly important processes typical
of socialist development. Complete elimination of the exploiters from the social
structure of Soviet society, transformation of Russia's proletariat into the socialist
working class of the USSR, formation of the kolkhoz peasantry, and acquisition of an
intelligentsia with a socialist countenance all resulted in evolution of mankind's
first society free of antagonist contradictions, one exhibiting socioeconomic and
ideological-political unity. It was the social foundation of the Soviet people as
a historically new community.
The fundamental changes that occurred in the social countenance of the nations and
nationalities of the USSR and in their mutualrelationships during the transition from
capitalism to socialism, establishment of comple~e political and legal equality of
all nations and nationalities, the decisive successes in surmounting de faeto in-
equality in levels of econamic and cultural development, creation of national
governments, formation of the USSR, and international indoctrination of the people
all strengthened the friendship between nations and nationalities in our country,
which was and is the international basis of the historically new human cammunity
in the USSR--the Soviet people.
It follows from this that formation of the historically new conununity was the ob-
jective result and the natural consequence of the fundamental changes that occurred
in the historic fates of our country's classes, nations, and nationalities in the
course of socialist development.
The classes and nations on the basis of which this community evolved continue to~
exist and develop. The historically new community's operation and improvement de-
pend mainly on processes governed by the laws of sor.ialist society's development,
processes occurring within classes and within their mutual relationships, within
nations and within their mutLal relationships.
Now that the historically new community has evolved and is functioning, the signi-
ficance of the specific laws governing development of this co~nunity has risen.
However, even in this stage the general laws governing development of socialism and
its transformation to co~nunism still play the decisive role.
I would also like to state my opinion on the qfiestion as to the stages and chrono-
logical landmarks in evolution of the historically new community. Inasmuch as crea-
tion of the historically new couIInunity is an objective law of socialism, the era of
transition from capitalism to socialism (1917-1937) should be treated as the first
stage in its development. During this time the social and international foundation
of the new community evolved, and a his torically new social and international
community of people in our country--the Soviet people--basically came into being.
This was the result of the general historical consequences of the era of transition--
creation of the material, socioeconomic, social-class, political, and spiritual
foundations of socialism--that is, basic creation of socialism, the first phase of
communism.
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It stands to reason that not all traits and characteristics of the historically
new community were fully formed or manifested at that time. But the most important
ones were evident: unity of territory, of socioeconomic and social-class structure,
of political structure, of dominant ideology, and of the end goal--development of
communism; the unity of economic life and a unified national economic complex were
taking shape at this time, a common culture was forming, and so on.
The second stage in fonnation and consolidation of the historically new community
consisted of an era of creation of developed socialist society, which began in the
second half of the 1930's ~nd continued until socialist society achieved maturity.
The evolution of the historically new coum?unity came to its conclusion after socialism
- was cons~lidated and developed, after a developed socialist system was created. At
the same time, formation of the community was one of the indications that socialist
society in the USSR had achieved maturity.
The era of developed socialism and expanded co~unist development (1960's-1970's)
is the third stage in the history of the Soviet people viewed as a new social and
international community of people in our country. 2he hi5torically new community
is now growing, developing, and improving, and its influence upon the course of all
communist development is growing on the basis of the developing material-technical
- foundation of communism, the drawing together and gradual fusion of the two forms of
socialist ownership, the accelerating erasure of significant differences between
workers and peasants and between workers engaged in physical and mental labor, and
the blossoming and drawing together of socialist nations and nationalities.
One more remark: The thesis that the subjective factor played a lesser role in
creation of the socialist nations than in creation of the international community is
- unpersuasive. The significance of the subjective factor in this process is just as -
great. -
V. S. Semenov
Editor in Chief of the Journal VOPRpSY FILOSOFII
Constant consideration of changes in the social structure of Soviet society has ~
very important significance to an analysis of the Soviet people's development as a
new international social community. After all, the Soviet people have evolved and
progressed on the basis of common characteristics typical of social-class and
national communities arising in the course of the~development and operation of _
developed socialism. As is emphasized in the Preamble of the new USSR Constitution,
the Soviet people evolved "on the basis of the drawing together of all classes and
social strata, of de facto and de ~jure equality of all nations and nationalities,
and of their fraternal cooperation..." (page 4).
It is very important from a methodological point of view to distinguish the key
sociaJ. indicators with which we can trace, with qualitative and quantitative preci- ~
sion, the corrnnon traits of the social-class structure in the historic course of
socialism's development. Understandably in this case, when we compare development _
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of the Soviet pe~ple and of the social structure, we must consider growth in social ,
and class unity not only in the society as a whole, but mainly in the national re-
publicsand the larger regions making up Soviet society. Then we would in fact be
able to see the process of continuous growth in that which is socially common te
all republics of the Soviet Union. ,
How do we go about distinguishing the main criteria that would reveal change and
amplification of the traits of social homogeneity of the unified Soviet people?
These social indicators must doubtlessZy reveal the drawinq together of the working
class and kolkhoz peasantry, of the city and countryside, of persons engaged in
, mental and physical labor, and of groups within the same classes and social strata
as we travel the road to comcrtunism. Moreover these indicators must be given in
concrete statistical tem~s, in figures which could be traced through history, and
compared with the regularly published statistics.
,
~ After considering all of these methodological requirements, I proposed using the
following indicators of the degree of generality of the social characteristics and
the social countenance of the Soviet people: the proportion of the population em-
ployed by state-owned enterprises, state ownership being the dominant factor of -
developed socialism; the proportion of the working class within the social structure
of the republics, this class being the deci;,ive productive and social-political
force; the proportion of the urban population, which reflects the leading role o~
the city in development of communism as the personification of progress in industry,
the scientific-technical revolution, science, culture, and education; the proportion
of the population of the national republics having a high~r and secondary (complete
and incomplete) education, which indicates leveling of the cultural and qualifica-
tional level of social groups, and of the educational and cultural characteristics
of the 5oviet people. An analysis of statistics for 1959-1976 on the basis of
these indicators persuasively ~onfirmsthe increasing importance of the social
characteristics and traits of the social-class comanun.ity in the Soviet people and
in the populations of all union republics.*
~ Some of the tentative results of the USSR's 1979 census have now been published.
Unfortunately, of the indicators named above, only two are represente d in these
figures--the size of the urban population in the republics, and the level of
education. But even these mighL� be enough for a tentative examinatior. of the
amount the social characteristics of the population have in common in all union
republics of our country. I tabulated the results of the last three censuses
(1959, 1970, 1979) for this purpose.
Let us make the basic conclusion suggested by this table, in order that we might
determine the influence of growth in coimr~on social characteristics of the populations
- of the union re~ublics upon the progress of the Soviet people, viewed as a new
social and international comnunity.
First. These data confirm that the Soviet people evolved as a historically new _
community in our country together with affirmation of developed socialist society
* See Semenov, V. S. "Dialektika razvitiya sotsial'noy struktury sovet~kogo
obshchestva" [The Dialectics of Development of Soviet Society's Social Structure],
- Moscow, 1977, pp 112-116.
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Growth in Similarity of the Social Countenance of the Union Republics of the USSR*
Proportion of Population
Proportion of Urban Population With Highe?- and Secondary
USSR and.Union Republics (Complete and ZnComplete)
of Total Population) Edscation of bnployed
Population)
1959 1970 1979 1959 1970 1979
= USSR 48 56 62 43.3 65.3 80.5
- RSFSR 52 62 69 44.0 65.6 80.3
Ukrainia;i SSR 46 55 61 43.8 66.8 81.3
Belorussian SSR 31 43 55 33.1 59.4 76.3 _
Uzbek SSR 34 37 41 44.7 66.3 84.8
Kazakh SSR 44 50 54 44.7 65.4 80.7
Georgian SSR 42 48 52 49.2 71.1 85.6
Azerbaijan SSR 48 50 53 47.3 67.4 83.2
Lithuanian SSR 39 50 61 25.0 49.6 71.1
Moldavian SSR 22 32 39 28.0 50.8 72.5
Latvian SSR 56 62 68 50.2 66.1 79.5
Kirghiz SSR 34 37 39 42.9 64.3 80.4
Tajik SSR 33 37 35 40.7 60.2 77.0
Armeni.an SSR 50 59 66 52.7 69.7 86.8
Turkmen SSR 46 48 48 49.7 68.2 82.3
Estonian SSR 56 65 70 44.8 66.0 78.6
- * This table was compiled on the basis of: "Itogi vsesoyuznoy perepisi
naseleniya 1970 goda" [Results of the All-Union Population Census of
1970], Vol 1, Moscow, 1972, p 8; Vol 3, pp 559-562; "Naseleniye SSSR.
Po dannym Vsesoyuznoy perepisi naseliniya 1979 goda" [The Population of
' the USSR. From Data of the All-Union Population Census of 1979],
Moscow, 1980, pp 4, 8-11, 21-22.
in the USSR, which happened after 1959, in the latter part of the 1960's (it was
not until 1962 that the USSR became an urban country from a demographic point of
view--that is, t2ie urbar_ population climbed ab~ve the rural population). In 1959,
less than half of the population of the USSR in the union republics lived in the
cities--the leading industrial, scientific-cultural, and sociopolitical centers,
and had the required higher and secondary (complete and incomplete) education
(except for four republics in regard to urban population, and two in regard to
education).
Second. In the 1960's and 1970's we witnessed, on one hand, a steady rise in the
social level of development of all union republics and, on the other hand, equaliza-
tion of the constantly growing level of their social development. While in 1970
half or more of thE population of eight republics lived in cities, in 1979 the
number of such republics i.ncreased to 10. In 1970, more than half of the employed
population of 14 republics had a higher and secondary education, this proportion of
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the population being more than 60 percent in 12 of the republics. In 1979, more
than 70 percent of the employed population of all republics had this level of ,
~ducation, while in nine republics this indicator was more than 80 percent. All
of this attests to growth in the social homoqeneity of the Soviet people and,
moreover, social homogeneity expressed by ever-higher indicators.
Third. The data for 1979, which reflect the second-to=last year of the lOth Five-
Year Plan, attest� to qualitatively new characteristics in development of the
Soviet people in terms of consolidation of common social and spiritual character-
istics. The clearest evidence of this can be found in the growth of the proportion
of the public with a higher and secondary education. Now three-fourths of the
employed population of the union republic--that is, the ovenahelmi.ng majority--
have such an education. In terms of the proportion of the urban population, six
republics were almost at or exceeded the all-union indiaator--62 percent.
All of this persuasively reveals, in the course of historical development of mature
socialism and its transformation into communism, the dialectics of the influence
of positive changes in the social structure and in the social countenance of the
population of the union republic upon further reinforcement, consolidation, and
improvement of the unified, common, and unifozm social characteristics of the
Soviet people, viewed as a historically new hwnan comnunity.
L. M. Drobizheva
USSR Ac~demy of Sciences Institute of Ethnography
Discussing the formation and development of the Soviet people, I would like to turn
the attention of researchers to the professional level of the analysis being made
of the Soviet people's development. I would like to turn their attention in parti-
cular to the choice of indicators of the Soviet people's development and to the
use of new major sources reflecting changes in the social consciousness and psycho-
logy of the Soviet people.
As was noted earlier, the study of the Soviet people can only be integrated, inter-
disciplinary. In correspondence with the profile of the USSR Academy of Sciences
Institute of Ethnography, ethnosociologists and ethnographers are studying those
aspects of the Soviet peo~le's formation and development that are associated with
the operation of this community as an international community. Principal among
them is the growing similarity of the social structure of the nations and peoples,
being an eleinent in the formation of a socially homogeneous society, and the
foundation of those social and cultural processes which promote development of
co~non traits in the way of life of all Soviet peoples, and evolution of friendly
international relations.
Another no less broad topic of research is changes in the cultural life of nations
and nationalities--study of the dynamics behind the relationship between general
Soviet, international elements and specifically national features in the culture
of the peopl es.and, finally, the unique features of social consciousness, of
social psychology that are associated with formation of all-Soviet and national
self-consciousness, including in the broad sense of these concepts (that is, not
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only the awareness of. membership to a nation and to the Soviet motherland, but
also the system of orientation having to do with all-Soviet and national values).
Major ethnosociological research is being conducted in an effort to study these
phenomena and processes. ~"his re~earch is being carried on by the Institute af
~ Ethnography jointly with local institutions of the Moldavian SSR, Estonian SSR,
Georgian ~SSR, Uzbek SSR, the RFSFR, and a ntm~ber ~~of autonomous republics. ' ~
Ethnosociologists and ethnographers studying the social and cultural aspects of
the historically new community face a number of problems common with those ex-
, perienced by other specialists. One of them is that of reflecting the intensifi-
cation of social and international characteristics in the life of Soviet people
with sufficient clarity and objectivity. In this case the closer we come to
modern times, the more acute the question as to the indicators and sources to be
used ~-n studying development of this process becomes.
The historical approach is very important to isolating the indicators. Here are
some examples. One indicai:or reflecting growth in social uniformity of the� Soviet
people,in the increase in similarity of the social structure of the peoples re-
sulting from equalization of the proportions of the basic social groups Fworkers,
peasants, intelligentsia). But the ratios exhibited by the republics and nati~ons
in terms of these indicators have retoained relatively stable over the last 20
years. ~his reflects the fact that at the level of equality achieve d in the
economic and cultural development of different peoples, given the existing national
economic division of labor on a countrywide scale, we cannot expect fundamental
changes in the ratio of workers, kolkhoz farmers, and intelligentsia in the
different republics in the immediate future. But this does not mean that the
social structure is not becoming more similar or that the social homogeneity of
different nations is not becoming greater. Internal changes occurring among
~ workers, peasants, and the intelligentsia are becoming an important indicator of
this process. Such changes include the convergence of the educational and skill
- levels of workers and peasants representing different peoples of our country, and
- growth in the similarity of the social groups themselves. As an example growth
in si.milarity of the internal coaq~osition of the intelligentsia of all peoples was
a typical phenomenon in 1950-1970. T'hus a productive and a scientific-technical
intelligentsia were created, for the first time for practical purposes, in Central
Asia and among a number of other peoples. The proportions of these representatives
of the intelligentsia are gradually growing more similar in all nations.
Another example can be found in the realm of culture. As we know, education is a
siqnificant indicator of the degree to which the cultural development of the peoples
is equalizing. This indicator remains stable in relation to each historical stage,
but nevertheless its importance does not remain entirely the same. While in the
1930's the level of education was assessed mainly on the basis of the population's
~ literacy level, in the present stage of Soviet society's development the main
indicator of the people's cultural development is the proportion of the employed
population having a complete serondary education, and the proportion of specialists
with a special secondary and higher education. Data describing the number of -
persons l.istening to radio and reading newspapers were used in the prewar and
first postwar years as an indicator of the use of the basic sources of information.
Today the republics are practically equal zn terms of this index--from 70 to 90
percent of the laborers use these information sources. Now the indicator used to
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distinguish different regions of the country and document growth in the similarity
of the spiritual needs of people representing different nationalities is the ~
characteristics of reading, the similarity of literary interests, presence of home
libraries, interest in theatre, and so on.
Consequently if we are to raise the professional level of research on this topic,
we must re~ch agreement on the indicators we use to reflect internationalization
of social life and development of the Soviet peaple. This is all the more necessary
because many indicators are expressed numerically, and in researcn on international
and interrepublic Processeswe could use quantitatice methods of a rather high
- level, ones which can fix the degree of increasing similarity in the life of nations.
Almost every topic associated with research on the Soviet people, be it the
economic unity of the Soviet republics, growth in social homogeneity of the society,
convergence of the cultures of different nations, and others, has an independent
ring to it, and has been studied over a long period of time. But if we want to
portray the Soviet people as a co~nunity, then we would obviously need to examine
all of these phenomena in their integration, we would have to show the mutual re-
lationships existing among different characteristics of the Soviet people. Assuming
that many of characteristics may be expressed quantitatively, we have the possibility
for revealing these relationships and arriving at a model of the growing similarit~- oF
the Soviet people, with the help ~f various coefficients. T'his has a~ready been
attempted, but we are now approaching this idea with 3reat caution, feeling that it
still does need testing.
I would very much like to turn the reader's attention to the hazard of using materials
from sociological studies out of context. The hazard here is, f~rst, that we often
use data which, when taken out of their context with other data (upon which the
former depend), may represent the process unobjectively (sociological material
usually requires an integrated systems approach to its utilization). Second, we
encounter researchers who, in their effort to accumulate additional materials,
particularly in sociological research, use data from unrepresentative samples. The
conclusions they make on the basis of such data are sometimes wrongly extrapolated
to an entize nation, a nationality, or even several nations. As with any source,
sociological materials require reliable testing. The question as to the reliability
of source testing and the representativeness of the sources used in the study of
any problem, and particularly the complex problem of the Soviet people, apparently
deserves special discussion, as do the criteria to be used i.n breaking the history
of the historically new comanunity down into different periods.
M. N. Guboglo
USSR Academy of Sciences Institute of Ethnography
Research on the mutual relationship existing between that which is national and
that~which is international, and between that which is social and that whi.ch is
national acquires special urgency in the period of developed socialism. Among _
many aspects of this complex problem, language occupies a special place. Forntation
and development of mature socialist society--a historically new community, the
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Soviet people--is associated with the blossoming and drawing together of the
nationalities of the USSR, gradual erasure of class differences, and formation of
coinplete social equality. At the same time, as long as national differences remain
and natiorral languages persist, the objective need for a language of international
communication will exist, and therefore we will continue to have a bilingual situa-
tion.
The data of the population census showed that in the period from 1970 to 1979 the
- number of people of non-Russian nationalities making competent use of Russian as
a second language increased by almost 20 million persons--from 41.9 million to
_ 61.3 million. At the same time the size of the non-Russian population for which
Russian language has become the native language increased from 13 million to 16.3
million persons. The extent to which Russian language is spreading through the
non-Russian population in the country doubtlessly attests to the fact that for
the overwhelming majority of the country's nationalities--nations, nationalities,
and national and ethnic groups--the spread of national-Russian bilingualism is
typical.
This process, which is proceeding on a voluntary basis, is a law governing develop-
ment of the linguistic life of the historically new corc~nunity--the Soviet people.
Therefore in connection with development and operation of the historically new
community, comprehensive study of bilingualism and multilingualism, mainly national-
- Russian bilingualism, is becoming the starting point for further expansion of
_ scientific research on the linguistic aspects of modern social processes.
Certain works discussing the cssence, content, and historical prospects of national-
Russian bilingualism contain unclear and unacc,eptable interpretations of the distri-
bution and redistribution of the social functions played by the languages of the
peoples of the USSR in the course of their interaction. Some debatable conclusions
stemed, in particular, from weak theoretical development of the conception of the
Soviet people as a new international and social com~nunity. I am referring to a
few works unjustifiably attempting to represent the Soviet people as some sort of
new single nation, and the Russian language as the single language of this nation.
� In reality, however, as Academician P. N. Fedoseyev noted, "the historically new
community is not eliminating the existing nations, and it is not erecting some sort
of superstructures over the different peoples; on the contrary it is serving as a
model of unif ication of peoples representing different nationalities while preserving
the nations and nationalities themselves."*
Development of national-Russian bilingualism does not mean infringement upon the _
existence of national languages, and it does not lead to linguistic assimilation.
The proportion of the USSR population (including Russians) who state that the
- language of their nationality is their native language has remained approximately
at the same level throughout all stages o~ socialist construction. Even today tha.s
indicator is not experiencing si.gnificant changes: It was 93.9 percent in 1970, and
93.1 percent in 19'19.
* Fedoseyev, P. N., "Theoretical Problems of the Deve~opment and Convergence of
Nations," KOMMUNIST, No 1, 1980, p 60.
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The spread of national-Russian bilingualism manifests itself today through the
tendency to equalize the extent of bilingualism among the different nations forming
the union and autonomous republics. Evidence of this can be found in the data of
the population censuses. The differenee between Uzbeks and Belorussians, which
in 1970 occupied diametricaZly opposed positions in relation to the proportion of
individuals exhibiting national- Russian bilingualism (14.5 percent and 49 percent),
was 34.5 percent. In 1979 this rang~ of variation between nationalities experienced,
first of all, a shift--Belorussians and Estonians were now in the polar positions
(~7 percent and 24.2 percent), and second of all a reduction--down to 32.8 percent.
In the autonomous republics of the RSFSR, the difference between Kalmyks and
- ri'ouvinians was 42.2 percent (81.8 percent 3nd 38.9 percent) in 1970. In 1979 this ~
difference was 28.5 percent between Kalmyks and Yakuts (89.1 percent and 55.6 per-
- cent). In other words the basic trend in ethnolinguistic processes led to equali-
zation of the nationalities of the union and autonom~ous republics in relation to
the prooortion of persons having facility with the language of international c~mmuni-
cation.
Researchers are faced by the important task of comprehensively studying funetional
' interaction of.languages of the U'SSR's peoples, the prospects for further spread
of bilingualism in connection with development and convergence of our country's
- nations and nationalities, the objective and subjective factors of 1:he spread of
i bilingualism, the mechanisms of its manifestation, and the social and cultural
cansequences. Of special significance in the face of progressing internationaliza-
tion of all spheres of life is research on the role of the lanquage of international
communication as one of the prerequisites and means of interaction and mutual en-
richment of national cultures, spread and reinforcement of all-Soviet culture,
assimilation and multiplication of the achievements of modern civilization, consoli-
dation of the international unity of Soviet society, and reinforcement of the
fraternity, friendship, and cooperation of nationalities in the course of the
Soviet people's development and in the course of gradual transformation of socialism
into corramunism. And inasmuch as socialist society is consistently controlling social
processes, including r~ational and ethnolinguistic ones, the task of the social -
sciences will be not cnly to study these processes but also to develop documented,
~ scier.tifically grounded recommendations with the goal of opti.mizing these processes.
In the conditions of mature socialism, we must promote development of bilingualism,
and primarily national-Russian bilingualism, without infringing in any way upon the
interests of the native languages of the USSR's peoples, and with an effort t~
create~faximally favored conditions for assimilation of Russian by non-Russian peo~le,
in accordance with the real need they experience for such assi.milation. Much work
is being done in this direction in the country. A graphical example of this can
~ be found in Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan, and some other union republics. "Our task,"
noted AzErbaijan CoAanunist Party Central Committee First Secretary G. A. Aliyev,
~ "is to see that every resident of the republic would learn Russian well, so that
- Russian would become as native to every representative of the Azerbaijan people as
- is their own language. We view this task to be one of the m4st important directions
in ail of our political an~ ideological work in the masses, aimed at improving
national relations and strengthening and deepening the international unity of the _
Soviet peaple."*
* Aliyev, G., "The Remarkable r'ruits of Isninist Friendship of Peoples,"
- KOMMUNIST, No 10, 1980, p 25. _
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As general theoretical research examining predominantly the methodological problems
of linguistic contacts widened, the need for organizing broad empirical research with
the goal of studying concrete linguistic life and the factors of social development
of the lanquages of the USSR's people became obvious. In this case the task of
revealing the real distribution of the social functions of these languages in the
diverse spheres of life acquired special importance. We must know, with sufficient
definiteness, how and when the need for bilingualism manifests itself and satisfies
itself in di fferent nations, and in different population groups united on the basis
of social, professional, sexual, age, territorial, and other characteristics.
There are va riations in the amount of research that has been conducted on the basic
trer~ds in functional development and interaction of the languages of the USSR' s
- peoples a.n1 on the level of their social functions in different spheres of life:
This researcn is mo re complete in relation to book publishing and school training,
an~ less complete in relation to management, legal proceedings, the work of the
~ mass media, production, personal life, and many other important areas. Even in a
relatively well-studied area such as, for example, publication of books in the
national lan guages of the USSR, research pursuing practical goals remains important.
As we know, an unportant prerequisite for growth of the country's overall scientific
_ and spiritual potential in the course of the scientific-technical revolution is
exchange ot th~ achievements and experience of all of ~our republics. But, as
Academician P. N. Fedoseyev emphasized, "we cannot recognize it to be normal that
a significant propo rtion of the general scientific works are published in the
republics on ly in the national languages, and consequently that they may be used
only by a limited range of readers who know these languages."* In addition to
national-language publications, we must simultaneously publish, in the language of
internationa 1 communication, those works that have major scientific and pxactical _
significance .
Inasmuch as the rates of spread of bilingualism differ and the particular combina-
tions of fac tors responsible for its development vary among different nations,
nationalitie s, and national and ethnic groups, it would be suitable to deeply study
the general and specific factors of national-Russian bilingualism in all of its
manifestations.
Research on the relationships between contemporary linguistic and cultural processes, _
includingbe tween linguistic and cultural activity, requires special attention.
- On the whole this problem is a complex one, and it is part of the broader topic of
language and cul~ur~. Feedfonaards and feedbacks between social development of
language and the function of culture are graphically rev~ealed in verbal and cultural
activity.
Ethnosociological research has shown that practical use of the second language in
bilingualism has greater sociocultural significance than does the simple knowledge
of. the second language. Everyone realizes today that many representatives of
non-Russian peoples seriously need a good knowledge of Russian, but the most
effective ways of solving this problem are not fully clear. This problem is usually
* Fedoseyev, P. N. , Op. cit. , pp 67-68.
J
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left for the school to handle, with the expectation that it would solve the bi-
lingualism problem concurrently with performing its direct functions. Much has
been said and done in the last few years to improve Russian language teaching in
the national school. This is extremely important and necessary. But the school
can onYy improve linguistic competency: Active speech is more significant and
_ valuable to mastery of a second language.
Some of the prerequisites for multidimensional analy~is and modeling of the
processes of bilingualism have been created. One significant condition for use of
these methods is that of developing the theoretical fundamentals of integrated
analysis of bilingualism, to include analysis of its individual components.
The first serious steps have been made in the effort to organize reseaxch on the
problems of bilingualism. There is much to do to coordinate the efforts of
specialists representing different branches of knowledge and working in various
academic and nonacademic institutions. There is much significance to expanding
the source base--to publishinq, in detailed form, the data of the 1979 population
census, to broadly introducing the extensive data of ethnosociological questionnaires
into scientific turnover, and to expanding publication of departmental statistics,
which should reflect the linguistic aspects of national and sociocultural develop-
ment of our country's republics to a deeper extent ~han before.
A qualitatively new stage is beginning in the development of ethnolinguistic
processes, 3nd their most important components--the processes of bilingualism--
in the conditions of mature socialism. Growth in the social significance of the
internationai language of communication stems from a real need of the country's
whole population, and mainly from the existence of a historically new community--
the Soviet people, as well as from the expanding influence of the scientific-
technical revolution upon all spheres of life, deepening of international contacts,
_ growth of the cultural and skill level of all nations and nationalities of the
USSR, and indoctrination of the growing generations in the spirit of patriotism
and internationalism. Deeper integrated research on the processes of bilingualism
m~::st be tailored to this new stage in the development of the country's linguistic
life.
From the Editors
Naturally we cannot complete the discussion of such a great and
com~lex problem--formation and development of a i~istorically new
community, the Soviet people--within the limits of a single
round-table meeting.
Preparing for it, the editor's office mainly tried to see that
the range of issues which must be studied in order to permit
determination of the essence of this complex historical
phenomenon would be defined in the course of the discussion.
From all appearances, the discussion did achieve this purpose.
The participants of the round table suggested their definitions
of the laws governing formation and development of a historically
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new community--the Soviet people. They attempted to resolve the
issue as to the mutual.relationships ~xisting between these laws
and those governing formation and development of the Soviet
society as a whole, to describe ~he fundamental principles of
revealing the dominant laws of the historically new community,
to reveal the factors responsible for its function, to determine
the stages of its development, and so on.
'I'he directions of further research on the topic were defined
and the most effective methods for analyzing it were sugg=sted
in a number of the responses. ~
No all solutions suggested by the participants of the round-
table discussion are undebatable. However, they do provide the
grounds for further thought and deeper study of the complex
, processes and phenomena associated with formation and develop-
ment of the social and international community that has evolved
in our country, an understanding of which would have considerable
significance, not only scientific but also practical. -
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", "Istoriya SSSR", 1980
11004
CSO: 1800
END
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