LONG-RANGE CAPABILITIES OF THE SOVIET UNION IN MAJOR SCIENTIFIC FIELDS 1957-67 -MONOGRAPH X MEDICAL AND VETERINARY SCIENCES

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• Publication Date: May 1, 1958

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SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE REPORT
N? 66
LONG-RANGE CAPABILITIES OF
THE SOVIET UNION IN MAJOR SCIENTIFIC FIELDS
1957 - 67
MONOGRAPH X
MEDICAL AND VETERINARY SCIENCES
APPROVED FOR RELEASED
DATE: 11-17-2009
CIA/SI 16-58
1 May 1958
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
OFFICE OF SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE
EE)INIFIDENTIAt
Z, ?- I ?z
 PREFACE
This monograph on Soviet medical and veterinary sciences
is one of a series of estimates of the capabilities of the Soviet
Union over the next ten years in major scientific fields. Mono-
graphs II through XI in the series are designed to support the
conclusions found in Monograph I, which is an overall evalua-
tion of Soviet science and will be published last. The intelligence
provided in this volume (X) emphasizes the trends in Soviet
medical and veterinary research. It also points out the signifi-
cance of such research, estimates the probability of Soviet at-
tainment of their stated goals within the next 10 years, and in-
cludes some comparison with Western efforts in strategic and
priority areas of work. Medical sciences are treated in part I,
and veterinary sciences are treated in part II of this monograph.
The titles of all monographs in this series are as follows:
MONOGRAPH NO.
I
II
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
TITLE
Summary Estimate
Policy, Organization, Planning, and Con-
trol of Soviet Science and Technology
Scientific and Technical Manpower in the
USSR
Physics
Mathematics
Geophysical
Chemistry
Metallurgy
Electronics
Medical and Veterinary
Biological and Agricultural Sciences
 FOREWORD
Part I (Medical Sciences) is designed to highlight those
areas of research and development of immediate or potential
concern to the national security. No attempt is made to por-
tray a balanced and comprehensive picture of all aspects of So-
viet medicine. The estimates and conclusions are evaluated in
terms of Soviet intentions and goals, which may differ from
those of the United States.
Part II (Veterinary Sciences) provides an assessment of vet-
erinary research and also considers this research within the
framework of veterinary practice.
Information available as of 1 January 1958 was used in pre-
paring this report.
 CONTENTS
MEDICAL SCIENCES
Page
PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . 1
ORGANIZATION, PLANNING, AND CONTROL . . . . 3
EXTENT AND ADEQUACY OF PRESENT AND FUTURE
RESEARCH FACILITIES . . . . . . . . . . . 4
QUALITY,, QUANTITY, AND EFFECTIVE UTILIZATION
OF MANPOWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
SOVIET OBJECTIVES, MAJOR ACHIEVEMENTS,
TRENDS, AND FUTURE CAPABILITIES IN BASIC
RESEARCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Space Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Control of Human Behavior . . . . . . . . . 10
Nuclear Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Health Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Infectious Disease Research and Development . . . . 15
Civil Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Polar Medical Research .. . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Nutrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Basic Protein Research . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
SATELLITE AND CHINESE COMMUNIST SUPPORT IN
BASIC MEDICAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT . 24
PART II
VETERINARY SCIENCES
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . 25
ORGANIZATION, PLANNING, AND CONTROL . . . . 26
0-1 vii
 CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
EXTENT AND ADEQUACY OF PRESENT AND FUTURE
RESEARCH FACILITIES . . . . . . . . . . 26
QUALITY, QUANTITY, AND EFFECTIVE UTILIZATION
OF MANPOWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
OBJECTIVES, MAJOR ACHIEVEMENTS, TRENDS, AND
FUTURE CAPABILITIES IN VETERINARY SCI-
ENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Current Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Comparative Trends, U.S.-USSR . . . . . . . . . 29
Estimate, 1967 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Military Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
SATELLITE AND CHINESE COMMUNIST SUPPORT IN
VETERINARY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT .. . 32
 LONG-RANGE CAPABILITIES OF THE SOVIET UNION
IN MAJOR SCIENTIFIC FIELDS 1957-67
MONOGRAPH X
MEDICAL AND VETERINARY SCIENCES
PART I
MEDICAL SCIENCES
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The responsibility for Soviet organization,
planning, and control of medical research is
highly centralized through the Academy of
Medical Sciences of the Ministry of Health,
USSR. Although there is strong control of
all Soviet medical research, there remains suf-
ficient flexibility for maximum use of research
assets. The current trend toward decentrali-
zation of administrative. authority to the re-
public level should provide increased local
benefits from advances in medicine.
Research facilities engaged in priority in-
vestigations are located in the Moscow-Lenin-
grad area. Most of these facilities are ade-
quately equipped by U.S. standards. The ma-
jority of facilities outside of this area are poor-
ly equipped. Within the next 10 years, a
marked improvement in the quality and
quantity of research facilities and equipment,
both in the Moscow-Leningrad area and the
Republics, will provide the material means
for broadening research frontiers..
Some of the leading Soviet medical sci-
entists are equal in competence to those of
the West. However, the Soviets lack depth
in numbers of outstanding scientists and,
therefore, are unable to devote adequate at-
tention to research of low priority. During
the period of this estimate, increasing num-
bers of competent medical scientists will be
trained. This increased scientific manpower,
along with the increased facilities and equip-
ment, will result in a broadening of research
areas and permit moderate decentralization
of research to the republic level.
Soviet research on space medicine now
maintains a significant lead over that of the
Western nations particularly in flight rocket
physiology, space flight equipment, and pre-
conditioning for gravitational stress. This
advantage will increase as long as they main-
tain superior ability to test laboratory results
under actual space conditions. Future Soviet
leadership in space research will be contingent
on resolution of the problems of propulsion
systems, advanced space vehicles, and re-
entry. There is no aeromedical obstacle which
prevents the Soviets from orbiting a human
being for a period of hours or days within the
next year.
 Soviet accomplishments in nuclear medi-
cine will continue to lag those of the Western
world in health physics, in the use of radio-
isotopes for diagnosis and therapy, and in pre-
vention of radiation injury. On the other
hand, the USSR will continue to lead the West
in the study of effects of radiation on the
nervous system. At international meetings
the Soviets will officially subscribe to low
maximum radiation exposure, but they prob-
ably will not let rigid health standards hinder
their nuclear energy activities.
The present Soviet emphasis on research
on bacterial diseases will be deemphasized
during the period of this estimate, except for
refinements in bacterial vaccines. Increased
emphasis will be placed on viral and rick-
ettsial research and the development. of broad-
spectrum vaccines and antiviral antibiotics.
We believe that the Soviets will continue
to emphasize the defensive aspects of human
BW but also will maintain research and de-
velopment which could support an offensive
human BW program.
Maximum Soviet effort in the medical sci-
ences will continue to be focused on attaining
a greater understanding of the factors under-
lying human behavior, emphasizing. the fields
of neurophysiology and psychophysiology
while rejecting psychodynamic principles.
Although the Soviets will continue to be on a
par with Western nations in the overall field
of neurophysiology, they will maintain superi-
ority in the study of conditioning and "func-
tional" neuropathology and the application
of these principles for:
(a) increasing the potential of the Soviet
man with. respect to his physical, social, and
political environment.
(b) creating international distrust and
anxiety through "unconditioning" and "re-
conditioning" techniques.
Soviet research and development work on
antibiotics and therapeutic drugs for chemical
warfare will parallel the West in approach,
but the West will continue to maintain a lead
in the development of these substances. Im`
general, the USSR and the United States will
probably be on a par in accomplishments in
the field of whole blood, plasma, and plasma
extenders.
Soviet production of drugs, biologicals, and
medical 'equipment .for civil defense purposes
will lag that of the United States for the next
5 years but will approach U.S. levels by 1967.
It is estimated that a moderate civil defense
stockpiling program will be completed by this
time.
U.S. advantages in civil defense, derived
from decentralized medical centers and supe-
rior quality of professional personnel, will be
1 offset by continued Soviet training of the
civilian population in the management of
mass casualties, coupled with an extensively
organized and manned civil defense program.
Present capabilities of the Soviet Union in
.,Polar medicine are equal to those of the
United States. The Soviets possess the essen-
tial medical principles concerned with pro-
tection against cold and will be able to con-
trol human factors in polar operations
through the application of known bioengi-
neering principles.
Soviet nutritional research is similar to
Western work of more..than a: decade ago.
While considerable progress will be made with
respect to increasing the quantity and improv-
ing the distribution of food products, the So-
viets will remain behind the West in the mili-
tary and therapeutic application of advanced
nutritional principles.
Soviet accomplishments in the field of basic
protein chemistry generally are less note-
worthy than those . of Western scientists.
However, the Soviets are currently engaged in
unique investigations on changes in the prop-
erties of proteins which result from struc-
tural alteration by both. chemical and physical
means. These studies have considerable sig-
nificance and could. lead to major advances
in the development of highly. toxic substances,
the formation of "universal" antigens and
antibodies, and in understanding the role of
intermediary metabolism in metabolic and de-
generative diseases.
. There is. considerable basic research poten-
tial.in .the Satellite countries and Communist
2 GG4W4DEi NTI A:T
 China on which the Soviet Union may rely
for medical support in the future. There is
little chance, however, that these countries
will institute any broad, full scale research
program of strategic importance to Soviet
medical sciences by 1967.
ORGANIZATION, PLANNING, AND CONTROL
ORGANIZATION
Research in medical science is conducted
by three major groups under the Council of
Ministers, USSR. These three are the Min-
istry of Health, with its Academy of Medical
Sciences (AMS), medical schools, and Repub-
lic Ministries of Health; the Academy of Sci-
ences, USSR, with its Union Republic Acad-
emies; and the Ministry. of Defense, with its
Main Medical Administration.
The AMS is an integral part of the Ministry
of Health, USSR, and organizes, plans, and
controls medical research in the Soviet Union.
The Academy is a highly centralized organi-
zation which is subordinate to the Learned
Medical Council of the Ministry of Health,
USSR, in research matters and to the Col-
legium of the Ministry in administrative af-
fairs. The AMS is composed of members
elected from the leading Soviet medical sci-
entists, some of whom are associated directly
with institutions under the Academy and
some of whom are associated with other insti-
tutions. Members of the Academy are desig-
nated' active or corresponding, according to
their scientific contributions. As of 15 August
1956, there were 88 active and 123 correspond-
ing members.
Under the Ministry of Health, USSR, re-
search is conducted by the Academy Insti-
tutes which emphasize basic research and by
non-Academy Institutes of the Ministry,
where more specific problems are pursued.
Research institutes of the Ministries of Health
of the Union Republics generally investigate
local problems.
The AMS maintains liaison with the Acad-
emy of Sciences, USSR, the Academies of Sci-
ences of the Union Republics, and the scien-
tific institutes and societies of the USSR and
foreign countries. This liaison is effected
through commissions and conferences and by
individual Academy members who hold posi-
tions in non-Academy Institutions. The
Academy of Medical Sciences has no subordi-
nate counterparts in the Union Republics.
Close liaison is maintained between the
AMS and the military medical services of the
Armed Forces. A specialist in military medi-
cine is assigned as one of the vice presidents
of the AMS and the Surgeon General of the
Armed Forces functions as an active member
of the AMS. In addition, there is a Military
Commission of the AMS Presidium which or-
ganizes, plans, and controls the programming
of military medical projects.
PLANNING
The Five-Year Plan of Medical Research of
the Ministry of Health, USSR, is an integral
and important part of national economic
planning of the Soviet Union. The current
1956-60 plan will be replaced by a 1959-65
plan,* which must be submitted in draft form
by 1 July 1958, and will be guided by research
plans of the AMS, the medical institutes un-
der the Ministry of Higher Education, and in-
stitutes under the' Ministry of Health.
CONTROL
Planning bodies are required to check re-
search progress continually at all levels of
administration in order to assure the satis-
factory progress of the plan. In addition, the
Presidium appoints review commissions, who
visit unannounced at the institutes to check
plan fulfillment and to appraise the work of
individual scientists.
The Communist Party maintains direct
control of the AMS through the Party organi-
zation within the Presidium and its Secre-
tariat. The Presidium, AMS, exercises con-
* According to some sources this plan may be ex-
tended to 1972.
 trol through its Party bureau and directs the
network of Party units operating at all levels.
The three key figures in the control of the
AMS are the academician secretary, the presi-
dent, and the secretary of the Communist
Party Bureau. These three officials are gen-
erally Party members. To date, the presi-
dents of the AMS also have been deputies to
the Supreme Soviet.
As part of the current Soviet trend toward
decentralization, directors of institutes and
research groups working on local problems in
outlying areas have been given greater au-
thority in the formulation and execution of
research projects.
Encouragement of ethnic pride will help to
resolve regional medical problems and will
tend to reduce dependence on Moscow and
Leningrad facilities and personnel. This de-
centralization of authority does not mean
autonomy and will become effective only as
greater numbers of competent scientists be-
come available at the republic level. We be-
lieve that centralized control of research and
strong adherence to priority, objectives will
continue during the period of this estimate,
and that this will enhance their ability to
accomplish those national objectives which
are considered vital to the security and econ-
omy of the Soviet Union.
EXTENT AND ADEQUACY OF PRESENT AND FUTURE RESEARCH FACILITIES
The major medical research facilities in the
Soviet Union are located largely in the Mos-
cow-Leningrad area. Of the 49 medical in-
stitutes and laboratories under the Academy
of Medical Sciences and the Academy of Sci-
ences, USSR, 32 are located in Moscow, 6 in
Leningrad, 1 in Kiev, 1 in Sukhumi, and the
remaining 9 among various universities.
FACILITIES
Many of the buildings housing research
centers, such as those of the Institute of
Serums and Vaccines imeni Mechnikov, the
Military Medical Academy imeni Kirov, and
the Institute of Blood Transfusion in Lenin-
grad, are old and in varying degrees of dilapi-
dation. Some of the older buildings are be-
ing replaced.
The poor appearance of many of the insti-
tute buildings does not necessarily reflect on
the quality of equipment or the work emanat-
ing from them. Although the United States
has a greater tendency to replace old build-
ings, the Soviets choose to do so only where
better facilities are essential for adequate
research.
EQUIPMENT
The quantity and quality of equipment as-
signed to an institute or laboratory usually
reflect the priority of projects being pursued.
For example, the Gamaleya Institute is ade-
quately equipped to permit the necessary re-
search support and experimental production
of biologicals concerned with infectious dis-
eases. The range of its activities can be com-
pared in many respects with the support ren-
dered by research components of U.S. com-
mercial biological plants. The Military Medi-
cal Academy imeni Kirov is well-equipped, al-
though housed in old buildings as are the In-
stitutes of Experimental Medicine and of
Tuberculosis in Leningrad. The Institute for
the Production of Poliomyelitis Vaccine, now
under construction, will be one of the best
equipped institutes in the USSR. All of its
production equipment was purchased from
the United States and Canada.
Some of the newer laboratories and insti-
tutes, especially those built in the past 5 years,
are still lacking in laboratory services, such
as gas, but are otherwise well-equipped with
microscopes, ultracentrifuges, electrophoresis
apparatus, electroencephalographs, electro-
cardiographs, radioisotopes and Geiger count-
ers. Some of the more elaborate scientific
equipment in U.S. laboratories, such as flame
photometers and scintillation counters, are
found in only a few leading Soviet establish-
ments.
 Although much laboratory equipment has
been purchased from the West, a considerable
quantity is now produced in the USSR. Old
U.S. lend-lease centrifuges and refrigerators
are seen in laboratories along with new Soviet
copies and other items of native design. Their
policy is to attain national self-sufficiency in
the design and production of research equip-
ment. Equipment of native design is some-
times crude and cumbersome in appearance
but appears serviceable. Examples of Soviet
designed ionophoresis apparatus have been
seen, and one observation, in 1955, was re-
ported of a self-recording oxyhemograph.
This was produced by the Krasnogordeyets
Medical Instrument Plant * in Leningrad and
was claimed to be superior to all similar for-
eign and domestic devices. The Institute of
Blood Transfusion at Leningrad has foreign
equipment, Soviet copies, and devices of na-
tive design, as well as crude equipment made
at the laboratory. .
Many Soviet institutes and laboratories con-
struct some of their own equipment. The in-
struments are designed by technicians (equip-
ment engineers) and, although crude, are of
good mechanical design.
Institutes concentrating on clinical re-
search are deficient in some of the necessary
basic equipment although several unique
pieces of apparatus have been seen. Exam-
ples include an instrument for increasing in-
tracranial pressure and an apparatus for the
study of kinesthetic analysers of the cerebral
cortex.
It is estimated that the supply of good
equipment and facilities will increase over the
period of this estimate to meet the expanding
program of medical research. Satisfactory
and sufficient equipment will be made avail-
able to the major Soviet laboratories engaged
in high priority projects but will not be avail-
able to others in the quantities found in most
Western medical facilities.
QUALITY, QUANTITY, AND EFFECTIVE UTILIZATION OF MANPOWER
The Soviet Union is training medical sci-
entists in ever increasing numbers, many
equal in competence to those in the Free
World. The lack of sufficient top research
manpower to investigate adequately all medi-
cal problems of economic importance is being
overcome by a rapidly expanding system of
higher education. Graduates of the uni-
versity system appear to possess sound the-
oretical knowledge in most fields and com-
pare favorably with U.S. university graduates.
The Kandidat degree in medical sciences is
the near equivalent to the Ph.D. or D. Sc. in
the United States. The Soviet Daktor is a
higher degree and has no exact equivalent in
the United States.
The Soviet Union is producing more than
twice as many physicians per year as is the
United States. Medical school training does
not emphasize research in basic medical sci-
* This is a major facility for the design and pro-
duction of medical equipment and employs over
3,000 workers, including over 400 design engineers.
ence to the same degree as does the university
system.
Under the Ministry of Health, there are 78
medical schools which train medical practi-
tioners and which are not affiliated with the
regular universities. At least one medical
school exists in each republic and each major
city. Candidates for medical schools are
selected by competitive examination from 10-
year secondary school graduates. These ex-
aminations are supposed to insure that 94 to
96 percent of the candidates will complete the
required curriculum. The medical course re-
quires six years of study; the last two years
are devoted to practical experience. Medical
diplomas can be earned in the fields of sanita-
tion, pediatrics, or general medicine. After
graduation, the physician is assigned for ap-
proximately three years' practice in an insti-
tution or location designated by the State.
After this, the physician may apply to one of
approximately 12 postgraduate schools for
specialization, or he can apply to an institute
 of the AMS for three years of graduate work
leading to the Kandidat degree with a subse-
quent doubling of his salary. Beyond this,
the physician with a Kandidat degree may
apply for the Doktor degree, and upon a suc-
cessful defense of his thesis, receives the de-
gree; his salary is again doubled. Finally,
if a physician renders outstanding contribu-
tions to medical science, he may be appointed
to the Academy of Medical Science as corre-
sponding member or academician, for which
he receives additional compensation.
According to qualified Western observers,
the teaching staffs at medical schools and
postgraduate schools appear to be competent,
and the students appear to receive training
only slightly less effective than that of U.S.
students. The opinion that Soviet medical
workers are vastly inferior in quality to those
in the United States can no longer be de-
fended on unequivocal grounds. From the
qualitative standpoint, the individual Soviet
physician is only slightly less competent than
his U.S. counterpart due to deficiencies in
basic science and clinical medical training.
The USSR enrolled approximately 26,000
students in its medical schools in 1956, in con-
trast to 8,000 enrolled in the United States.
The Soviet claim of 94 to 96 percent gradua-
tion of students enrolled in medical schools
is partly borne out by the fact that 19,517
students were enrolled in the 6-year medical
program in 1950, and an estimated 18,000
graduated in 1956.* The USSR has recently
indicated that the supply of physicians is
reaching the optimal point and that means
of improving quality at the expense of quan-
tity are being considered. At the end of 1956,
there were 329,441 physicians in the USSR
(70 percent of which were women) as opposed
to 221,700 physicians in all categories in the
United States as of 1 July 1956.
Soviet emphasis on quantity of medical
manpower is due to the fact that the primary
medical problems in the USSR are related
to public health and preventive medicine.
Therefore, the policy has been to saturate the
* The Soviet figures are believed to be correct,
plus or minus 10 percent.
population with large numbers of physicians
who are trained to diagnose and treat illnesses
which produce high morbidity rates. Re-
search personnel have concentrated on devel-
oping better therapy for the large number of
physicians to administer under circumstances
prescribed by central authority. It is be-
lieved that, within the period of this estimate,
the Soviets will curtail the presently expand-
ing physician training program to maintain
a level of one physician to 'about 500 popu-
lation.
As of mid-57, the total number of individ-
uals employed in health sciences in the USSR,
including those with academic degrees, was
370,500, representing 25 percent of the total
scientific and technical manpower. In the
United States, approximately 448,300 individ-
uals were employed in health sciences, repre-
senting about 34 percent of the total scientific
and technical manpower. The Soviets have
17,600 persons working in health sciences,
and an additional 7,600 working in biological
sciences trained to the Kandidat or Doktor
level, in contrast to the-U.S. figures of 1,300
in health sciences, plus 16,900 in biological
sciences trained to the Ph.D. and D.Sc. level.
In practice, many of the Soviets holding
health science degrees are actually working
in biological research, while many U.S. hold-
ers of biological science degrees are working
in health science areas. There are totals of
25,200 Soviet workers and 18,200 U.S. workers
functioning in essentially the same area.
The USSR is now supplying sufficient com-
petent personnel to broaden the frontiers of
priority medical research, while minimizing
work of, lower priority. The continued train-
ing of medical manpower, however, will allow
more competent workers to do research in
lower priority areas.
The USSR will continue to emphasize train-
ing in the basic medical sciences and, by 1967,
Soviet medical researchers generally will be
on a par with those in the United States, and
may be more advanced than the United States
in certain priority fields such as space medi-
cine and control of .human behavior.
6 GQNRDHN9Phtb
 SOVIET OBJECTIVES, MAJOR ACHIEVEMENTS, TRENDS, AND FUTURE
CAPABILITIES IN BASIC RESEARCH
SPACE MEDICINE
Objectives
Soviet scientists have clearly indicated their
intention to solve those basic bioengineering
problems which are associated with human
operation of high-speed and high altitude air-
craft and space vehicles.
By 1955, Soviet research in the field of space
medicine indicated approaches which were
novel and untried by Western scientists.
Some of these approaches have led to impor-
tant but as yet incompletely understood ad-
vances. The Soviet Union has an extremely
active space flight program which includes
biophysical and medical studies relating to
upper atmosphere and space.
Basic Aspects of Space Medicine
Flight. Rocket Physiology - Fundamental
physiological data from animals exposed to
space conditions are being obtained through
the use of Soviet-designed equipment which is
modified for telemetering biological data such
as heart beat, blood pressure, temperature,
and respiratory activity to ground receiving
stations. The results of this animal research,
during flights at 1,000 mile altitudes, can be
correlated with simulated high altitude data
and will afford the Soviets an earlier solution
to the disturbances that are anticipated in
manned space vehicles.
Perception of Movement - There is consid-
erable effort by Soviet scientists to derive and
apply formulae for computing such factors as
position, acceleration, and G-forces which af-
fect spatial vision as fixation points change.
Special attention is given to plotting eye
movements and internal eye processes relative
to time. The amplitude of eye movement or
timing angle has been studied quantitatively
in order to derive an objective index of the
awareness of test subjects in sensing and esti-
mating distances. The experimental designs,
research procedures, and conclusions by So-
viet scientists are generally of good quality.
Published laboratory data, however, is some-
times too meager to allow adequate evalua-
tion. Adequate evaluation is also precluded
by the absence of variance data.
Acceleration - New fundamental concepts
on the biological effects of acceleration, if con-
firmed and extrapolated from current animal
experimentation, will enable the USSR to sim-
ulate and eventually solve many bioengineer-
ing problems associated with rocket and space
flight. The Soviets probably will lead in the
study of acceleration effects on both periph-
eral sensory nerve functions as well as motor
behavior thereby increasing the efficiency of
various techniques for postponing or reducing
the adverse physiological effects of accelera-
tion under space flight conditions. Soviet
scientists have drawn special attention to
transverse accelerations by their launching
and orbiting of the Sputnik II dog, Laika.
The horizontal positioning of the dog, perpen-
dicularly to the direction of acceleration, pre-
vented substantial displacement of blood from
vitally important organs, such as the brain.
This positioning increases the resistance of the
living animal to overloads by a large factor.
Soviet experiments, showed that a 40-fold
transverse overload for 15 seconds failed to
produce adverse physiological disturbances in
chimpanzees. They also claim that a 10- to
12-fold acceleration overload is fully permis-
sible for man. This use of transverse posi-
tioning materially reduces the problem of ac-
celeration for living animals. The Soviets
point out that only the involuntary delay in
breathing, produced by rocket acceleration,
limits the permissible time of action of an
overload. The problem of involuntary delay
in breathing can be overcome presumably
through the use of forced breathing. *
*A human normally requires a conscious effort
to exhale at altitude above 40,000 feet because of
reduced barometric pressure.
 Human Engineering
Physiological Data - Soviet scientists have
demonstrated a high degree of capability in
instrument development for bioengineering
problems. Telemetering equipment has been
adapted to transmit physiological data from
rockets and space satellites to ground record-
ing instruments. These ground instruments
record physiological changes in animals dur-
ing flight by oscillographic techniques as part
of the study on environmental stresses of
space travel. Their equipment is capable of
measuring both qualitative and quantitative
changes during flight as altitude and accelera-
tion change. The availability of such equip-
ment gives the USSR a technological advan-
tage in their space medicine research pro-
gram.
Human Space Flight Equipment - Soviet
engineering and technological abilities are on
a par with, or slightly ahead of, U.S. knowl-
edge in most respects. In addition to the de-
velopment of normal pressure cabins, in which
pressure is maintained by means of a boost
from the atmospheric air, there is evidence
that the Soviets have developed a type of pres-
sure cabin which maintains air pressure and
the exchange of gases by regeneration devices
inside the cabin without using external at-
mospheric air. Such a regenerative-type pres-
sure cabin would be similar to a "sealed cabin"
which is still under development in the United
States.
Soviet pilots appear to use forced breathing
techniques and probably acquire increased al-
titude tolerance by acclimatization training.
This is supported by the observation that pres-
sure and altitude suits are in use, not only
for emergency situations, but also for longer
periods of time at extreme altitudes. High
pressure breathing and protection suits which
are used in the United States, however, are
generally considered only as emergency equip-
ment.
Theoretical Research - Oxygen deprivation
at high altitudes is of urgent interest in the
USSR. In the field of protein biochemistry,
the Soviet scientists have been studying the
cytochrome enzyme system which is an es-
sential means of oxygen activation in cellular
respiration.
Preconditioning - The most outstanding
feature of the Soviet space medical program
is perhaps the degree to which space animals
are preconditioned. It is quite possible that
the vestibular apparatus of the Sputnik test
dog was altered or modified by surgery or
drugs prior to its prolonged space flight in
order to study the positioning sense of the
animal through other sensory organs. Since
the vestibular apparatus is responsible for
signaling the position of the body in space,
disruption of this apparatus could provide
significant data for future studies on the prob-
lems of weightlessness. In the past, Soviet
scientists have meticulously followed pre-
scribed regimens of compensating for altered
position sense by adapting test animals to new
types of coordinations and by conditioning
animals to other orienting senses, such as
sight and touch. Presumably if an animal
could be oriented through use of sight and
touch without vestibular orientation, it would
not have much difficulty in a weightless state
and would not be subject to motion sickness
and accompanying digestive and circulatory
disturbances. However, this technique of
altered responses cannot be extrapolated di-
rectly to humans. Further research along
these lines is undoubtedly in progress.
Superclean Environments -Soviet research
on supercleanliness is only of peripheral medi-
cal interest, but it is a primary factor in the
fabrication of high precision components
ranging from the assembly of ballbearings for
highly-sensitive, superprecise instruments to
the assembly of floating gyros and accelerom-
eters in inertial navigation components.
Superclean conditions are necessitated by the
fact that extremely minute particles of dust
or airborne micro-organisms can cause a seri-
ous error in the accuracy of such equipment.
The Soviets appreciate the importance of
supercleanliness and have worked out the the-
oretical aspects of contamination, even in very
small particle-size ranges. Furthermore, they
have developed air-monitoring devices which
are claimed to be more than adequate for
detecting particles of a size tolerated in the
8
 assembly of Western superprecision compo-
nents. Data on actual conditions in pertinent
industrial enterprises is lacking, as is definite
proof that Soviet concern with superclean-
liness includes problems relating to superpre-
cision assembly. The Soviets, however, have
developed some equipment which is suitable
for maintaining superclean conditions, and
their standards are comparable to those pre-
scribed in the West. The development of some
of this equipment is connected with the So-
viet nuclear energy program. As early as
1953, the Soviets published articles on nuclear
research work rooms which had rounded
points of intersection between walls, floors,
and ceilings and the partitions were made of
non-porous material, such as vinyl plastic, to
minimize contaminations. These specifica-
tions are comparable to those of the West.
Although the Soviets had pointed out that
adequate air filtration apparatus is necessary,
information on technical specifications of So-
viet air filters is incomplete.
Estimate, 1967
Exclusive of material achievements, the ac-
celerated status of Soviet exploratory research
in aeromedicine and space medicine, through
1967, will result in an increased understand-
ing of the fundamental mechanisms that un-
derlie human performance and behavior in
space and will encompass the broad range of
space environments and space equivalent con-
ditions in civilian and military operations.
Soviet researchers will intensify their obser-
vations on biological effects of radiation, arti-
ficial environment, orientation in space, op-
tical factors, gravity zero, and temperature
and pressure tolerances.
During the next few years, the Soviets will
continue to use animals for extremely high
altitude research purposes, employing pri-
mates such as monkeys and chimpanzees.
There is no aeromedical obstacle, other than
a possible reluctance to take a calculated risk,
to prevent them from orbiting a human being
for a period of hours to days within the next
year. Such a feat would depend on perfection
of an ejectable "sealed capsule" for re-entry
and/or re-ignition of non-expended fuel for
re-entry of a manned rocket.
As a result of interpretation of physiological
data telemetered from extremely high alti-
tudes, the Soviets will overcome, within the
next two years, many of the major theoreti-
cal gaps which exist in the understanding of
animal and human physiological reactions to
space hazards.
Through 1967, it is expected that the Soviet
Union will modify animal and human re-
sponses so that space travelers may adapt
themselves to extended or temporary intoler-
able conditions, such as might occur during
launching, orbital flight, and re-entry.
Within the ten year period, the USSR will
make significant advances in establishing the
effects of physical factors (temperature, mo-
tion of the air, atmospheric and barometric
pressure, radiation, ionization of air, etc.) on
biological systems.
The Soviets will continue to propagandize
achievements in space medicine in their psy-
chological warfare effort against the West
through 1967.
Military Implications
The USSR is currently (1957) training mili-
tary airmen to withstand the adverse condi-
tions which they may meet in space flight.
A member of the Soviet delegation to the
Eighth International Astronautical Congress,
held during August 1957 in Barcelona, Spain,
pointed out that Soviet studies on the effects
of space travel on human beings already are
far advanced. These studies, simulating ex-
tremely high altitude conditions, were devised
following the study of space explorations us-
ing animal subjects. Scientists of the USSR
and other countries now have confirmation
of theories that living creatures can survive in
space for extended periods.
Through 1967, consolidation of space re-
search programs in the Soviet Union will in-
clude the military medical sciences, giving re-
searchers new substantive ways to attack old
problems and new opportunities for experi-
ments in environments, such as a near-per-
fect vacuum, intense solar exposure, or bom-
bardments by cosmic and other radiations.
Problems of major military significance in
space medicine will continue to be attacked
9
 with considerable success by Soviet scientists.
The degree to which this will aid them mili-
tarily will depend largely on technological ad-
vances in rocketry and the development of
new weapons systems. The Soviets have the
capability to apply the principles of space
medicine to these new systems.
CONTROL OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR
The Nervous System: Regulation of the
Organism
A discussion of Soviet physiological con-
cepts requires the frequent use of the terms
neurophysiology and neuropathology. The
broader Soviet concept of neurophysiology
includes psychology, especially association,
whether the association arises from actions,
impressions, words, or thoughts. Soviet neu-
ropathology is concerned with the study of
malfunction caused by any mechanism which
disturbs analysis or synthesis of the unity of
subjective or objective behavior or the loss of
adaptation to the total environment.
Objectives - Soviet materialistic philosophy
readily adheres to the principle that there is
a demonstrable physical explanation for com-
plex physiological and psychological functions
called human behavior. Human behavior is
thus regarded essentially as a conditioned re-
flex resulting from contact between the living
organism and its internal and external en-
vironment. Soviet physiologists theorize that
the cerebral cortex is the master mechanism
for controlling both internal and external be-
havior. Research objectives are designed to
prove this theory and to further determine the
physical linkage between behavior and the
body.
Current Trends - The Soviets design their
experimental work in neurophysiology on the
principles laid down by Sechenov and Pavlov.
Conditioning techniques are used widely to
study behavior mechanisms under controlled
laboratory conditions.. Experimental environ-
ments are impressed on the sensory organs
and the resultant behavior is. quantitatively
measured. Conditioning is used experimen-
tally to induce internal and external sensory
linkage on a predetermined basis to predict
behavior. The functional "receptivity" of the
central nervous system is one great variable
in such research, which, according to the So-
viets, responds to modification within limits.
An important trend in their research is to
determine the limits within which compli-
cated physiological reactions, such as the total
personality of the experimental subject, may
be molded. Experimental work on environ-
mental changes has shown that alterations
in the excitation, inhibition, or delay in the
response of the higher centers result in limited
reactivity which is amenable to quantitative
and qualitative measurement. The Soviets
are thus opening the whole field of behavior
to conditioning methodology, from which they
anticipate demonstrable response with reason-
able predictability.
Comparative Trends, U.S.-USSR - U.S.-
USSR trends in all phases of physiological re-
search show some measure of parallelism. In
the available Soviet literature, it is difficult
to perceive any lack of understanding or ap-
preciation of recent Western advances, but
there is a difference in scientific focus. In the
West, physiology is advanced primarily ac-
cording to academic interests whereas in the
Soviet sphere physiological research appears
to be centered on an intensive search for a
method for controlling human behavior.
The advances in sensory physiology and
psychology are predominantly in the posses-
sion of the Soviets, and they have established
approaches to the organic aspects of behavior
analysis and control which are not appreci-
ated in the West.
The mastery .of the cortical influence over
both external and internal behavior has not
been investigated in the West with the in-
tensity, zeal, or thoroughness that it has in
Russia. The West recognizes the association
of sensory impulses from exteroceptive and
interoceptive receptors at higher nervous
levels. (This is the hypothesis of psychoso-
matic medicine.) The observations which the
West has gathered on visceral stimulation
have indicated that they are largely of uncon-
ditioned character. The conditioning of vis-
cero-visceral or visceral-somatic reflexes has
received only minimal attention in the West.
 The Soviets regard conditioning as the only
method for learning, while the United States
views conditioning as one of several methods.
This tends to minimize U.S. efforts to analyze
experimental possibilities in the conditioning
technique.. External or exteroceptive condi-
tioning is well understood the world over, but
the appreciation of interoceptive conditioning
and the advances in this area are distinctly
Soviet. This type of investigation in Soviet
hands has shown its importance in the modifi-
cation of external or somatic reflexes by de-
liberate manipulation of the internal environ-
ment and emphasizes a facility for emotional
excitation which is a potent source for per-
sonality alteration.
Estimate, 1967 -Personality Analysis and
Manipulation -The effectiveness of subaudi-
tory stimulation on perception has been dem-
onstrated and recently has been applied ex-
perimentally. This method will be studied
by the Soviets in an attempt to assess its value
for training the population or for its prop-
aganda value.
Irradiation techniques will be developed to
leucotomize ("lobotomize") local and specific
brain areas. These effects will be reversible
or non-reversible depending upon focalization,
duration of application, and dosage. The
technique will be relatively simple, bloodless,
and without mechanical trauma and has def-
inite applications in altering personality.
Electrodes implanted in specific cortical and
sub-cortical areas produce, upon stimulation,
abnormal behavior in laboratory animals.
This technique will be used in humans for the
purpose of reducing hysterias or psychotic
behavior. The electrode will be wireless and
activated by high frequency induction from
outside the skull.
Anxiety states will be treated by specific
conditioning of visceral receptors. A num-
ber of experimental conditions which utilize
this type of conditioning will be published.
In addition, anxiety states will be created by
pertinent external stimuli.
The observations growing out of the visceral
influence on personality will be advanced to
the point of showing new approaches to diag-
nosis and treatment.
The Soviets will attempt to demonstrate the
mastery of cortical control over visceral econ-
omy. This will include the direct and indi-
rect control of the endocrine glands. Spe-
cific integrating mechanisms within cortical
and sub-cortical centers which regulate vis-
cero-somatic and somatic-visceral condition-
ing will be described. The 'Soviets consider
this type of research essential for understand-
ing all facets of personality.
The cardiovascular, respiratory, hematopoi-
etic, and excretory systems are susceptible to
conditioning. By specific conditioning, the
individual will be better trained and adaptable
to handle stresses imposed by industry, space
travel, and physical training.
Conditioning "peaks," which may appear
years or even hours after birth, have been
recognized in children. Childhood training
will be modified so as to make the best use of
these "peaks," thereby enabling the Soviets
to introduce more advanced educational train-
ing at an earlier age.
Anatomical and Neurochemical Advances-
The histological study of sense organs, espe-
cially interoceptors, will be markedly ad-
vanced. These studies will confirm the pres-
ence of polyvalent receptors in brain tissue
and will lead to new and more reasonable
concepts for blood flow control within the
brain.
Radioisotopes are being employed for a bet-
ter understanding of neurochemistry and
neuropharmacology in health and disease.
Marked advances will show the nature of the
processes of excitation and, more particular-
ly, inhibition. Cortical inhibition is so im-
portant to the Soviet concept of cortical ac-
tion that an all out effort will be made to un-
derstand it by both metabolic and electro-
physiological techniques. Inhibition is one
of the most poorly understood functions of
the nervous system in worldwide neurophysi-
ology.
Conditioned reflex pathways within the
cerebral sub-cortex and cortical structures will
be demonstrated and anatomically localized.
C T- AL 11
 Military Implications - Soviet animal and
human experiments have established that
neuroses and other psychological (neuro-
pathological) conditions can be created which
cause predictable behavioral changes. We be-
lieve that they are attempting to translate
these laboratory findings into methods for
controlling human behavior.
Defensive Considerations - Advancing So-
viet knowledge in the fields of physiological
conditioning and physiological psychology
may be applied to the direction and control of
military and civil defense efforts and to social
and political aims. Increased emphasis on
supervised and controlled training programs
can be expected to afford greater stability to
the Soviet population in the event of war.
Offensive Considerations - Soviet psycho-
logical warfare reflects good psychophysio-
logical techniques. The application of these
techniques can be more clearly understood
and appreciated through observation of their
biological research. The Soviets will intensify
the scope of their efforts in creating confu-
sion, suspicion, and misunderstanding among
foreign powers through speeches, interna-
tional actions, and the veto; which in physi-
ological terms represent unconditioning stim-
uli. Soviet successes in mass unconditioning
can be measured by the degree of anxiety
which is displayed periodically by large seg-
ments of the Western world. Soviet psycho-
logical strategy will incorporate recondition-
ing methods when they feel that anxiety and
tension in the non-Communist world permits
subtle modifications of Western ideology in
the direction of Communism. For the im-
mediate future, unconditioning techniques,
manifested by states of anxiety and tension,
will continue to be the fundamental weapons
used in their psychological strategy.
Physiology and Pathology of Higher Nervous
Activity
Objectives - Physiology - The objective of
Soviet neurophysiology is to prove that higher
centers are the sole interpreters of all external
and internal environmental stimuli; there-
fore, changes in the environment become con-
ditioning stimuli. The living organism must
reach equilibrium with its environment to sur-
vive even in a complex changing environment.
This is accomplished through physiological
adaptation under the direction of higher
nervous centers.
Pathology - The objective of Soviet neuro-
pathology is to prove that functional abnor-
malities are induced by "overload" or "colli-
sion" of cortical processes. It is claimed that
practical demonstrations have been made ex-
perimentally in both man and animals with
weak or with strong but unbalanced nervous
systems.*
Current Trends - Physiology - The most
recent neurological techniques used in the
West are also used by the Soviets with equal
facility and understanding. Research em-
phasis in Soviet physiology is on condition-
ing, cerebral blood flow, neurochemistry, and
neuropharmacology.
Neurophysiology is also being applied to
special industrial training and educational
methods in the USSR.
Pathology - Extensive use is being made
of the techniques developed for inducing
mental aberrations. Abnormal conditioning
has been effective in the development of anx-
ieties, neuroses, and hysterias. The tech-
niques for doing this incorporate excessive
stimulation, prolonged monotony, inhibitory
conditioning, conversion of inhibition into ex-
citation, and the interference of antagonistic
reflexes or "collision."
Intensive unconditioning and recondition-
ing is being used on neurotic and psychotic
patients. Practice of strong positive condi-
tioning in individual and group training, as a
primitive measure, is being developed as a
standard technique.
Comparative Trends, U.S.-USSR - Physi-
ology - The Soviets are continuing. to explore
every facet of the conditioning technique,
both academically and from the standpoint
of practical application. At present, U.S. sci-
entists are quite uninterested in this area.
The Soviets are continuing to emphasize an-
* According to Soviet terminology, the weak
nervous system is not readily influenced by condi-
tioning, while the strong nervous system is amena-
ble to rapid and decisive conditioning.
 alysis of environmental stimuli more than are
U.S. scientists. Animal and human ecology
is of great interest to Soviet physiologists but
is receiving little attention by their U.S.
counterparts. The trends in electrophysiology
and neurochemistry are similar in both
countries.
Pathology - Abnormal conditioning and
unconditioning is increasing in Soviet usage.
The United States is doing little in this area
as an approach to functional pathological be-
havior. The United States is stronger in ana-
lytic techniques which are frowned on by the
USSR. The West has the advantage of more
experience with shock treatment and brain
surgery in the treatment of mental and nerv-
ous diseases.
Estimate, 1967-Physiology - Understand-
ing of local and general factors which regu-
late cerebral circulation will be substantially
advanced. The Soviets have developed one of
the most promising leads in this area; namely,
brain chemoreceptors which are responsive to
slight changes in blood chemistry.
Great advancement will be made in the un-
derstanding of cerebral inhibition through in-
hibitory conditioning, enzyme chemistry, and
neuropharmacology.
Major advances will be made in the identi-
fication of receptor organs which regulate the
metabolism of the brain directly.
There will be advances in the concepts of
"overloading" and "collision" in cortical
physiology and pathology. These advances
will provide a clearer understanding of the
functional mechanisms which are responsible
for better or poorer transmission of nerve im-
pulses in the higher brain centers.
Pathology - The causation and treatment
of certain neuroses by conditioning, uncondi-
tioning, and reconditioning will be accom-
plished.
It will be shown that suitable electrical
stimulation of the brain, in conjunction with
conditioning, will facilitate the production
and/or treatment of abnormal brain function.
Radiation illness will be shown to involve
the nervous system to a greater extent than
is now believed. Radiation illness will be
found to be due partially to the alteration in
the flow of nerve impulses into the higher
centers.
It will be shown that functional neuro-
pathology is perpetuated by abnormal visceral
reflex activity once it has become established,
although visceral conditioned reflexes have
been shown to be slow to form and resistant
to the methods known for extinction.
There will be advances in the understand-
ing of cerebral vascular control, from the
physiological and pathological standpoints.
There will be advances in the use of high-
frequency induction, strong electromagnetic
fields, and the use of anodal electronic cur-
rents in cerebral areas to facilitate local and
general inhibition, anesthesia, and alterations
in vascularity.
Clinical Aspects of Human Behavior
Psychiatry is considered less important
than neurology in the Soviet Union. Soviet
psychiatrists state that their methods of treat-
ment are based on Pavlovian ideas, but they
employ almost all modern methods of treat-
ment, with slight variations. Until recently,
psychiatric research on reflexes and condi-
tioning capabilities of mental patients has
been their major interest. None of this work
has significantly clarified the understanding
of human behavior nor has it been of any par-
ticular clinical value. Recently, Soviet inves-
tigators in the fields of psychiatry and neu-
rophysiology have been permitted more lati-
tude in research. Pavlovian concepts of con-
ditioned reflexes are now being supplemented
clinically by incorporating ideas of feed-back,
cerebral modulation of sensory input, and the
information theory (cybernetics) as described
by Wiener.
By 1967, Soviet neurophysiologists will
make significant clinical advances in clarify-
ing the nature and causation of mental dis-
ease. The results of their neurophysiological
and neuropathological research will not re-
duce human behavior to a simple mathe-
matical equation or to an electronic circuit
which can be altered by varying the input or
changing connections. The Soviets appear to
understand the unconscious and conscious
13
 forces that motivate groups and nations al-
though they deny Western psychoanalytic
theories of behavior.
NUCLEAR MEDICINE
Objectives
Radiobiology - Soviet objectives in radio-
biology are: to provide substances for the
prevention and therapy of radiation injury,
to study the pathogenesis of radiation sick-
ness and to relate changes of immunological.
processes to pathogenesis, to determine the
cancerigenic role .of ionizing radiation in tu-
mor development, to intensify work in radia-
tion genetics and the biophysical aspects of
radiation biology, and to apply radiobiology
to an understanding of fundamental prob-
lems of living systems.
Radiotherapeutics - Soviet objectives in
radiotherapeutics are: to perfect radiothera-
peutic techniques, to avoid excessive expo-
sures to radiation of human beings in the
reproductive ages and of developing embryos,
to study the effects of small doses of internal
and external ionizing radiation, to study the
facilitation of excretion of internally deposited
radioisotopes, and to develop the production
and medical use of radioisotopes.
Current Trends
After the 1955 Geneva Conference on Peace-
ful Uses of Atomic Energy, the Soviets ad-
mitted they were rather far behind in the de-
velopment of radiobiology. Thus, the 1956-
60 AMS Five Year Plan emphasizes the above
objectives. In 1957, the Soviets established a
new institute known as the Institute of Radi-
ation and Physico-Chemical Biology, in the
Department of Biological Sciences, Academy
of Sciences, USSR, headed by the world re-
nowned biochemist, V. A. Engel'gardt. This
Institute is primarily concerned with studies
on radiation genetics and on the mechanism
of action of ionizing radiation on the living
organism.
Soviet investigations include most areas be-
ing emphasized by Western scientists. The
use of radioisotopes for diagnosis and therapy
is increasing rapidly. Although some Soviet
therapeutic claims have been exaggerated, it
is apparent that they use most of the forms
of radiotherapy available in the West. Work
on methods and instrumentation occasionally
shows new ideas. The infrared light-diffrac-
tion red blood cell size determination method,
for example, has interesting possibilities in
detection of radiation damage. Their radio-
biology research strongly emphasizes radia-
tion effects on the central nervous system but
is currently expanding to include research
projects on other fields under' study in other
countries.
''Comparative Trends, U.S.-USSR
The quantity of Soviet research on the use
of radioisotopes for diagnosis and therapy is
now approximately on a level with 1949-52
U.S. efforts. The quality tends to be some-
what better than similar 1949-52 U.S. work,
because the Soviets are able to use results of
Western work as a starting point. Soviet
diagnostic and therapeutic methods, however,
are not on a par with those of the United
States, probably as a result of inadequate
application of their medical research and de-
velopment. Soviet scientists are giving more
emphasis than Western scientists to the re-.
sponse of the central nervous system to local
and general irradiation. A major point of de-
parture from Western research is Soviet work
on the effect of radiation on the nervous sys-
tem and its importance in future radiobiologi-
cal studies. Soviet irradiation studies on mi-
croorganisms have been described by Western
observers as at least equal to current U.S.
work. In other aspects, however, their re-
search is 3-5 years behind that of the West.
,/Estimate, 1967
By 1967, the Soviets will have extended
their radiobiological program to include most
areas presently considered important from a
research standpoint. Their work will be of
much higher quality and, although many of
the same problems will be under attack, the
Soviet approach will become more sophisti-
cated and will be directed toward more basic
understanding of physical-biological proc-
esses. No significant advances are anticipated
except possibly in the use of radiobiological
techniques for localization and precise manip-
14 C, aZ4PHNT+AL--
 ulation of specific functions and segments of
the central nervous system. It is expected
that the USSR will be ahead of the United
States in radiobiological research on the nerv-
ous system, and possibly will also lead in the
effects of cosmic radiation on organisms. The
USSR will lag slightly behind the United
States in the general field of radiobiology and
in the use of radioisotopes for diagnosis and
therapy.
Military Implications
By 1967, the Soviets will not have developed
a method for the prevention or therapy of
radiation injury, which can be applied to civil
defense against nuclear warfare attack.
Objectives
The prime objective of all health physics
organizations is the minimization of human
exposure to ionizing radiation. Ancillary to
this goal are the following tasks: develop-
ment of administrative and procedural con-
trols for workers in industries which have
radiation hazards, provisions for shielding
and protective clothing, adequate working
space ventilation, personnel dosimetry, work-
ing space dosimetry, worker education, early
detection of personnel exposure to radiation,
prophylactic chemicals, and therapy for ab-
sorbed radioisotopes or for ionizing radiation.
Current Trends
Although the USSR officially subscribes to
a policy of maximum permissible radiation
exposure which is at least as low as that of
the United States, the Soviets are lax in the
application of rigid radiation health stand-
ards in their nuclear energy research and
operations. The United States prescribes a
maximum exposure of approximately 0.1
rem/6-day week. The provisions for person-
nel .protection in one of the Soviet atomic
power plants observed by Western visitors are
completely inadequate by U.S. standards.
The shielding of therapeutic radiation devices
also is insufficient to permit operating per-
sonnel to work an 8-hour day.
Present Soviet information on the relative
biological effectiveness of different types of
radiation for injuring living tissue is based
on Western literature published from 5 to 8
years ago. A few of the more advanced So-
viet workers are aware of 1956-57 U.S. re-
search in this area. Soviet principles for
establishing maximum permissible concen-
tration of radiation appear to be the same as
those used in the United States. Routine So-
viet medical examinations for workers who are
exposed to radiation emphasize neurological
examination but are otherwise similar to
those used in the United States.
Comparative Trends, U.S.-USSR
From the theoretical standpoint, the So-
viets are aware of current Western trends and
practices, although they have contributed
nothing original in health physics. Soviet
practice of personnel protection apparently is
inferior to that in the United States; the So-
viets rely on practices unacceptable to the
West.
Estimate, 1967
The Soviets will maintain close surveillance
of U.S. and other Western advances in health
physics. In. international meetings they will
subscribe to the greatest possible avoidance of
exposure to radiation. However, the Soviets
will, on a practical level, subordinate health
physics practices to the development of their
nuclear energy program and probably will not
provide any significant advances in health
physics by 1967.
Military Implications
(See Radiobiology)
INFECTIOUS DISEASE RESEARCH
AND DEVELOPMENT
Objectives
The underlying motivation for Soviet re-
search on infectious disease is to reduce the
worktime lost to the national economy be-
cause of debilitation and illness. Thus, al-
most all medical microbiological research and
development, planning, and budgeting is ?con-
CON IDENW A T 15
saa xrr~
 centrated on those infectious diseases which
directly or indirectly cause losses in labor
potential.
There have been few significant changes in
the past 10 years in Soviet research and de-
velopment related to infectious diseases. So-
viet efforts are concerned mainly with the
development of new and improved vaccines,
serums, antibiotics, and chemotherapeutic
agents; the collection of data necessary for
epidemiologic intelligence; and evaluation
studies concerned with the efficacy of avail-
able diagnostic, preventive, and therapeutic
biologicals and clinical procedures. Basic re-
search in medical ,microbiology is insignifi-
cant when compared with developmental ef-
forts.
In descending order of emphasis, the key
Soviet medical microbiological research and
development efforts pertain to bacillary dys-
entery, influenza, brucellosis, poliomyelitis,
tuberculosis, childhood infectious diseases,
the encephalitides, tularemia, the hemor-
rhagic, fevers, plague, and Q fever. Investiga-
tions of other important diseases receive
modest support. In recent years, desultory
efforts have been put on glanders and
melioidosis, sandfly fever, mycotic infections,
infectious mononucleosis, and dengue and yel-
low fever.
The USSR maintains some active research
and development interest in almost every dis-
ease of international importance and Soviet
scientists are highly knowledgeable concern-
ing several diseases of worldwide interest,
such as brucellosis, tularemia, and the en-
cephalitides.
There is considerable responsible microbi-
ological investigation in the USSR which is
influenced by a growing nucleus of able men.
Concentration of resources and personnel has
resulted in abatement andjor control of ma-
jor outbreaks of diseases, such as typhus,
cholera, plague, and smallpox, which sapped
the Russian economy before 1930.
At present, USSR development and mass
application of live vaccines (such as those
used 'for influenza, Spring/Summer enceph-
alitis, brucellosis, tularemia, tuberculosis,
and plague) , in combination with awide-
spread vector control program where applica-
ble, are used to temporize .the continuing
problems resulting from insufficient sanitary
hygiene practices and services. The net pro-
tective effect of mass immunization with live
vaccines is limited by poorly evaluated vac-
cine trials and inept epidemiological analyses.
Comparative Trends, U.S.-USSR
Related Sciences -Soviet efforts in basic
disciplines underlying the study of infectious
diseases are generally inferior to those of the
United States. The best Soviet ideas and
work are sometimes comparable to U.S.
studies but there is a relatively low volume of
such work in the USSR.
Basic medical microbiological research is al-
most completely dependent on open Western
sources, although- certain information from
USSR workers is of great interest to U.S. in-
vestigators.
Specific Disease Studies -Wherever USSR
investigators are expending quantitatively
greater efforts than U.S. workers, such as in
the fields of bacillary dysentery, the zoonoses,
and childhood .infections,. it reflects inade-
quate Soviet application of known environ-
mental sanitary measures.
Concentration of about 80 percent of Soviet
viral research and development on influenza
has resulted in a USSR program which only
in recent years can be called similar to the
U.S. effort. The 1955-57 Soviet purchase of
U.S. and Canadian equipment and the ex-
change of medical virologists only recently
made feasible a significant USSR polio-
myelitis research, development, and vaccine
production program. The only examples
where USSR investigators have had more ex-
perience than their U.S. counterparts are their
work with exotic diseases, such as atypical
encephalitides and hemorrhagic fevers, the
trend towards more emphasis on rickettsial
studies, and the study of medical entomology.
Even in these areas, Soviet investigators have
not produced any biologicals, methods, or the-
ories which are superior to those available
in the United States.
16
 Prevention and Control -The Soviet pre-
ventive medicine program is centrally con-
trolled. Prominent authorities are assigned
to infectious disease commissions and epi-
demiological survey teams in order to collect
and collate information coincident to labora-
tory research. Soviet investigators and pub-
lic health officials make some use of every
U.S. diagnostic, preventive, and therapeutic
tool applicable to human infectious diseases.
Nevertheless, the lack of uniform application
of environmental sanitation measures, the
high incidence of occupational diseases, the
existence of sizably populated yet underde-
veloped areas, and the presence of a
number of semiprimitive indigenous popula-
tion groups, place the USSR public health
system at a serious disadvantage. Although
public health services are far from ideal, they
are usually available to all population groups.
Clinical laboratory support as practiced in
the United States is practically non-existent
in the USSR. Projects such as the zoonoses
and influenza control programs vary in qual-
ity and quantity. Despite large-scale efforts,
influenza is responsible for loss of 7 to 21
working days per man-year. As many as 4
million Soviet meat and dairy industry work-
ers may lose an average of 30 work days per
man year from brucellosis. Annual losses
total many millions of dollars for these two
infectious diseases alone.
Military Aspects -Specific military re-
search and development projects at the Sci-
entific Research Institute of Epidemiology
and .Hygiene of the Military Ser'~ices, Kirov
(NIIEG VS) and the Military Medical Acad-
emy imeni Kirov, Leningrad (MMAK) play a
small but important role in the study of infec-
tious diseases. A number of closely coordi-
nated interagency medical committees serve
both the civilian and military communities.
Most leading USSR medical research person-
alities have military affiliation.
In the USSR, the study and control of in-
fectious diseases of military importance have
two basic functions: (1) protection and treat-
ment of troops, and (2) a program for mili-
tary and civil defense against biological war-.
fare agents. A relatively small part of the
total military and civilian medical research
and development effort is intended for BW
defense. As of 1957, Soviet BW development
efforts are largely concerned with immuniza-
tion, pathogen air sampling, experimental
epidemiology, theory of aerosols, rapid detec-
tion procedures, and- .studies on efficacy of
various aerosol and surface decontamination
methods. Soviet information has been heav-
ily supplemented by World War II Japanese,
German, and open published Western BW
data. Research and development on bacterial
zoonoses appear to have been emphasized in
the past. However, recent (1956-57) studies
on influenza virus- aerosols and air sampling
(by investigators now working at the Insti-
tute of Virology, Moscow) are applicable to
BW research and development, and indicate
their increasing interest in the viral and
rickettsia) field.
Although Soviet authorities have been cog-
nizant of the military weapons system possi-
bilities of pathogens for over 20 years, current
efforts appear to be largely motivated by the
need for preparation against weapons which
may result from the considerable U.S. BW
effort. Soviet materiel required for. medical
defense against pathogenic aerosols are com-
parable to, and have limitations similar to,
those of U.S. equipment. Soviet equipment
applicable to BW research and development
is usually less complex and often crude in
comparison with similar U.S. apparatus. In-
fectious disease studies of special human BW
significance follow the U.S. pattern but lack
the complexity, engineering, and concentra-
tion associated with U.S. BW efforts.
The USSR BW defense effort relies on the
.utilization of available personnel for military
and civil defense plans, training, and organi-
zation. In the USSR, both the military and
civil sanitary epidemic systems have the ma-
jor responsibility during and after a BW at-
tack. All medical laboratories and personnel
have a detection and identification mission,
and the available zoonose vaccines have been
specifically authorized for immunization of
civilians and troops when BW attack is ex-
pected.
17
 !`~lIATL~TTIL~TTTT A T
Estimate, 1967
Research -Research on bacterial diseases
will be substantially deemphasized in favor
of concentration on the viral and rickettsia)
diseases. There will be greater and better
quality biochemical and biophysical support.
More medical microbiological research will be
basic and specific infectious disease research
will decrease substantially. There will be a
large effort in the field of physiological stress
related to both infectious and non-infectious
diseases. New information on the mechanisms
of immunity and infection may result in this
area, but significant advances on the nature
of antigen and antibody will more likely be
derived from Western work. Soviet studies of
potential broad spectrum antigens will prob-
ably provide them with a capability in im-
munochemistry and related fields which
should be sufficient for possible characterisa-
tion of antigens giving simultaneous protec-
tion against a number of infections.
Development -The development and re-
finement of live attenuated vaccines for
zoonoses, influenza, and the spotted fever
group will continue for the next 5 to 10 years.
However, by 1967, the major emphasis will
shift to development of purified antigens and/
or adaptation of Western vaccines. The re-
finement of an orally-administered live, atten-
uated polio vaccine will be an exception.
Better chemotherapy and new or improved
procedures for detection and isolation of mi-
croorganisms could come from increased- So-
viet emphasis on related biophysical and bio-
chemical applications. It is more likely, how-
ever, that most of these advances will result
from Western investigations.
Within -the next ten years, the important
infectious disease research institutes will be
modernized and well-equipped. Though fewer
in number, all major, medical microbiological
research, development, and production facili-
ties will be comparable to similar U.S. facili-
ties. The quality control of biologicals will
be much improved, but these products will
continue to be inferior to U.S. products.
Many of the outmoded or poorly evaluated
biologicals now on the USSR market will have
been eliminated.
Control of Infectious Diseases - By 1967,
the centrally-controlled antiepidemic ap-
proach now employed in the USSR will have
been minimized in favor of improved local
environmental .sanitation, such as potable
water supply and adequate waste disposal
facilities. The organizational structure of the
Soviet infectious disease control system will
result in a stronger regional research and sup-
port laboratory system. Treatment of chronic
stages of the infectious diseases will be em-
phasized. A token force of a nation-wide
antiepidemic network will be retained for pos-
sible emergency situations.
Military Implications
In the next ten years, Soviet medical micro-
biologists will continue to attack problems of
serious public health significance.. Minor
portions of this effort can be directly applied
to BW. Unless investigators. accomplish de-
liberate mass infection of man in a manner
useful to a military commander, the USSR
will do little more than orient paramilitary,
civil defense, and military personnel on rou-
tine measures for meeting a BW attack. Mass
immunization, specifically as a defensive
measure against potential BW agents, will not
be attempted unless a BW. emergency is im-
minent. Those medical services which are
applicable to defense against BW will con-
tinue to be maintained on a semi-alert basis.
Antibiotic and chemotherapeutic stockpiles
for epidemic emergencies will be available in
areas of greatest military and industrial. im-
portance. A network of air and fluid sam-
pling stations in key areas will be in opera-
tion and mass distribution of microorganism
sampling equipment to key stations will be
accomplished.
Defense Against Nuclear Weapons Attack
Objectives -Soviet objectives include the
provision of adequate physical facilities to
treat the largest possible number of persons
injured in radiological. warfare (RW) ; the
stockpiling of appropriate antibiotics, drugs,
blood and plasma extenders, blood fractions,
fluids for injection; dressings, and ancillary
 equipment, such as radiation detection me-
ters and dosimeters; the provision of sufficient
numbers of trained medical personnel; the
training of the general population in proce-
dures designed to minimize the number of
persons injured as well as to assist the injured
during and after attacks; and the minimiza-
tion of the psychological vulnerability of the
population to RW.
Current Trends - In December 1956, So-
viet DOSAAF, Red Cross, and Red Crescent
committees were reported to have completed
their task of educating the populace concern-
ing antiatomic defense. Beginning 1 Janu-
ary 1957 and continuing to 31 December 1958,
the MPVO, with the assistance of the .above
societies, is conducting a compulsory program
of instruction for everyone above 16 years of
age. This program consists of 22 hours of
instruction and a test of the knowledge ac-
quired on 14 themes for air, atomic, chemical,
and bacteriological defense. There is ex-
tensive published material available to sup-
plement such training. The "USSR Training
Manual For Local Antiair Defense" is one of
the better and more complete publications.
The number of medical personnel is rapidly
nearing the point where future training will
be able to emphasize quality rather than
quantity. The emphasis on the medical as-
pects of defense is an important facet of
training for these medical workers.
Production and stockpiling of equipment
and pharmaceuticals for the defense program
currently takes precedence over civilian con-
sumption requirements. The capacity of the
Soviet Union for pharmaceutical production
is suil'icient to provide for stockpiling, plus a
moderate amount of materials for current use:
It is unlikely, however, that the Soviets are
presently manufacturing sufficient radiation
monitoring and protection devices to meet
the needs of the atomic weapons program. It
is doubtful therefore if enough such equip-
ment is available for stockpiling and civilian
consumption.
Comparative Trends, U.S.-USSR -The So-
viet Union is definitely ahead of the United
States in psychological and medical civil de-
fense training, but the United States is in a
better position to treat a large number of
patients due to the extensive geographical dis-
tribution of many excellent medical centers.
The United States is far ahead of the USSR
in production capacity and stockpiling of
pharmaceuticals and equipment.
~'
Estimate,. 1967 - By 1967, most of the So-
viet production, distribution, and stockpiling
programs will have been completed. The So-
viet population will continue to be more
knowledgeable in defensive measures than the
population of the United States. The Soviets
will increase the quality of their medical per-
sonnel training and of the care available in
emergencies. There will be a greater number
of good facilities for the care of mass casual-
ties. Effective therapy for radiation injury
probably will remain an unsolved problem,
both in the United States and the USSR.
Military Implications -The Soviets will
continue to excel in training, control, and
attitude of the population toward civil de-
fense. It will be possible for the Soviet Union
to equal any U.S. civil defense stockpiling
effort by 1967. The current high level of U.S.
medical practice, however, will partially offset
the Soviet psychological lead during the early
part of the 10 year period. The greater U.S.
production and distribution of drugs, instru-
ments, and other medical supplies will give
the United States a slight advantage for about
the first five of the next ten years.
Defense Against CW Attack
Objectives -Soviet objectives in the medi-
cal aspects of CW defense are to provide per-
sonnel with protective equipment, adequate
and rapid medical treatment for CW injury,
and adequate civil defense measures for train-
ing and protecting the population against CW
attack.
Current Trends -Research on the physi-
ological effects of CW agents and a search for
effective counteragents are being emphasized.
Civil defense posters are advising the populace
where to seek shelter and what to do in the
event of CW attack.
Estimate, 1967 - By 1967, the- Soviets prob-
ably will have developed improved shelters,
personal equipment, and drugs of therapeutic
19
 value for the treatment of CW casualties
caused by conventional war gases and G- and
V-agents. Stockpiling of important medical
materiel will result in improved capabilities
for defense against CW attack.
Adequate amounts of drugs for the therapy
of CW casualties and antibiotics for the pre-
vention and treatment of secondary infections
are expected to be available in the USSR by
.1967.
The USSR is expected to continue its cur-
rent effort in the construction of underground
shelters .to provide protection during a CW
attack. Formation of well-indoctrinated
cadres to care for CW casualties will be com-
plete by 1967 and mandatory instruction of
the general populace on the dangers of CW
will continue during this period.
Military Implications - At present, total
Soviet medical defensive capabilities against
CW attack do not exceed those of the United
States. It is believed that the United States
has a slightly greater medical defensive capa-
bility against G- or V-agents due mainly to
the greater U.S. logistic capability in support
of medical defense.
By 1967, the United States will have greater
capability for the preventive and therapeutic
treatment of CW casualties than the USSR.
However, the possible Soviet discovery of new
synthetic types of biological compounds from
their efforts on the alteration and rearrange-
went of toxic proteins may present a serious
threat to the United States.
Whole Blood, Plasma, and Plasma Extenders
Objectives -Soviet objectives are to pre-
pare and make available whole blood, plasma,
and plasma extenders in amounts adequate
for the treatment of burns, shock, radiation
syndrome, and for use in pre- and post-opera- ,
tive care and for mass casualty supportive
therapy.
Current Trends -Current Soviet research
is aimed at increasing the usable life of stored
whole blood and the development of plasma
volume expanders. Another trend, although
currently on the decline, is the clinical use
of animal blood plasma as a substitute for
human blood. Soviet plasma volume ex-
panders may be divided into two groups; the
synthetic expanders, and the natural ex-
panders which are prepared from animal tis-
sue. Among the synthetic expanders are
Polyglukin, Sinkol (glucose polymer type),
and PVP (polyvinylpyrrolidone) . In general,
these compounds have a high molecular
weight, are colloidal in nature, and possess
properties similar to human plasma. Among
the natural expanders are BK-8 and LSB
(earlier referred to as VNS), the latter being
a species non-specific serum. Frozen blood,
in the form of cylinders :inserted between the
fractured ends of long bones, has been used
successfully iri the rapid healing of such
fractures.
Comparative Trends, U.S.-USSR -The
USSR and the United States are attempting
to increase the usable life of stored whole
blood. Soviet scientists are approaching this
problem through the addition of chemical
substances while U.S. workers are using low
temperatures. Soviet claims of significant
progress in this field have not been confirmed.
Although U.S. research has been partially
successful in extending the preservation of
blood at low temperature, the method pres-
ently is not industrially feasible because of the
extremely high cost. The Soviets are also
using low temperatures along with their own
chemical additive techniques to preserve whale
blood. A detailed manual on the technique
of blood transfusion is now available to Soviet
civil defense personnel.
Estimate, 1967 - By 1967, it is expected
that the storage of whole blood will have been
extended beyond its currently accepted limits
by the USSR and the United States. The effi-
ciency and number of Soviet blood banks will
have increased.. The Soviets will exert greater
control over civilian blood donors, though
donations will be at less frequent intervals.
Recent Soviet research is directed at inacti-
vating some of the enzymes associated with
the breakdown of whole blood and is expected
to be successful. This will result in extending
the time of blood storage.
In general, the USSR and the United States
will probably be on a par in accomplishments
 in the field of whole blood, plasma, and plasma
extenders.
Military. Implications -The Soviets had
considerable experience in blood collection
during World War II, when logistic problems
were solved by using basic materials in
a crude but effective manner. Adequate
amounts of whole blood are believed to be
stockpiled for emergency usage. Dried plasma
and plasma extenders are also available.
By 1967, the Soviets will have perfected
techniques for increasing the storage time of
whole blood and for increasing the quality of
plasma and plasma extenders. As a result,
they will be able to provide more adequate
care for the military services who require
whole blood or plasma extenders for the treat-
ment of burns, shock, and trauma.
The distribution and utilization of blood
and plasma extenders are closely allied to
priority military requirements in the USSR.
The ready availability of these products is a
distinct advantage in Soviet medical defense.
New Antibiotics and Drugs
Objectives -Soviet objectives are to in-
crease drug production and distribution; to
develop new and better native drugs for re-
placement of imported drugs; to stimulate re-
search on new antibiotics for viral diseases,
cancer, tuberculosis, and diseases resistant to
presently used antibiotics; and to search for
drugs useful in defense against chemical,
atomic, and bacteriological warfare.
Current Trends -Soviet pharmacological
and pharmaceutical research includes: inves-
tigations into more effective analgesics which
are sufficiently safe to permit use in full-scale
warfare, better treatment for burn therapy,
antibiotics for common as well as exotic dis-
eases, prophylaxis against chemical and
.radiological agents, and therapeutic and de-
contaminating compounds for these same
agents.
The Soviet definition of an antibiotic is
much broader than that of the United States
and includes such materials as tissue extracts,
The section on pharmaceutical research in
Monograph VII, .Chemistry, provides data on So-
viet pharmaceutical capabilities.
serum derivatives, enzymes, and proteins. As
a result, research in this field includes work
on bacteria, yeast, fungi, protozoa, and plant
and animal tissue. Among the newer (1957)
antibiotics available are Penicillin V and Bi-
cillin, both of which are identical to the U.S.
compounds. Other antibiotics which were
developed earlier include Ekmonovocillin,
Colimycin, and Bin-chaga, the latter being
prescribed as a cure for cancer, ulcers, and
gastritis. In general, however, only limited
success has been obtained in the development
of mycin-type antibiotics.
Comparative Trends, U.S.-USSR -The ma-
jor portion of Soviet pharmaceutical research.
reflects a continued exploitation of U.S. and
other Western developments. Many foreign
drugs are adopted, renamed, and produced by
the Soviets to avoid importation. Soviet
pharmacology, particularly neuropharma-
cology, has some lines of .original research,
but it generally lags 5 years behind that of
the United States. In the .last 2 years the
Soviets have begun to close this research gap
but they will not approach the position of
the United States for many years.
Estimate, 1967 -The Soviet research effort
on antibiotics will become mare original but
continued emphasis will be placed on the ex-
ploitation of Western developments. The U.S.
will probably retain a clear lead in research,
development, and application of antibiotics.
It is unlikely that a significant scientific
advance will result from current Soviet anti-
biotic research. The Soviets hope to develop
antiviral and anticancer antibiotics but they
are not neglecting the potentialities of the
chemical approach to these problems.
POLAR MEDICAL RESEARCH
Objectives
Soviet objectives are to determine how best
to utilize polar nutritional resources and how
best to avoid the attendant special health
hazards.
Current Trends
The present lines of research include studies
on special polar meteorological conditions
and their impact on human beings, and
!'+l1T~TL~TTIL+TTTT A T Z 1
 studies on cold injury, clothing, nutrition,
sanitation, and disease vectors.
Comparative Trends, U.S.-USSR
The USSR is definitely behind the United
States in theoretical aspects of the patho-
genesis of cold injury. The two countries are
nearly on a par in therapy of cold injury.
The Soviet rapid rewarming technique and
the use of ultra-high frequency ("super" dia-
thermy) are unusual aspects of Soviet- ther-
apy. Such techniques are not currently in
use in the United States. A facet of Soviet
preventive practice is the emphasis on cold
"conditioning." U.S. scientists are opposed
to this type of exposure to cold.
Estimate, 1967
By 1967, the Soviets will have achieved suf-
ficient experience in polar medicine so that
current problems will be reduced to preven-
tion of cold injury. No major scientific. ad-
vances are necessary for such progress. It
does not seem likely that the Soviets will make
major advances in understanding .the patho-
genesis of cold injury. The Soviets probably
will be on par with the United States from a
practical applied standpoint.
1Vlilitary Implications
At the present time, the USSR is just as
capable as the United States in polar military
maneuvers from the medical viewpoint. The
Soviets will probably maintain this position
through 1967.
Objectives
Soviet objectives include improving nutri-
tional standards fox athletes and school-age
children; improving therapeutic nutrition
programs in hospitals; establishing nutri-
tional requirements in polar and subtropical
regions; establishing living and nutritional
requirements of industrial employees who
work with nuclear energy and radioactive sub-
, stances; increasing studies on avitamin-oses
which result from the use of antibiotics; de-
termining the effect of heat-processing on nu-
tritional values of food; developing of special
rations; understanding the relation between
dietary intake and disease; providing more
adequate distribution of milk and dairy prod-
ucts; and improving quality controls on vita-
min and hormone preparations.
Soviet emphasis is on the use of therapeutic
diets for patients. Studies on the effect of
vitamins on higher nervous ~ activity are in
progress but no significant data have been
reported. _The search for new sources of
dietary essentials is increasing. Animal ex-
periments, where used, are not statistically
valid and experimental designs are generally
poor.
The Soviets have only token representation
at international meetings on nutrition and
there is virtually no participation. Large-
scale nutritional surveys, such as those which
are carried out by the United States, are not
being made.
Soviet nutritional research is similar to
Western work of more than a decade ago.
The greatest Soviet problems are not in nu-
tritional research but are generally in basic
fields of food technology such as growing,
harvesting, preserving, marketing, and dis-
tribution of food products.
Estimate, 1967
By 1967, the USSR will make few advances
in the applied aspects of nutrition over those
achieved in 1957; advances in .basic research
are more probable. New sources of vitamins
will be found in indigenous plants but these
will be exploited primarily for their propa-
ganda value. The Soviets will devote some
effort to training additional scientific person-
neI in the field of nutrition.
There is presently little indication that the
Soviets will incorporate- into their military.
services a nutritional program comparable to
that of the. United States. The Soviets will
probably not make any advances of major im-
portance in the field of nutrition within the
period of this estimate; they will continue to
depend primarily on Western advances.
 BASIC PROTEIN RESEARCH
Objectives
Soviet objectives in the. field of protein re-
search are to determine the amino acid com-
position of tissue, the sequence of.amino acids
in various protein molecules, the portion of
the protein molecule which is biologically
active, the shape and dimension of protein
molecules, the properties and mechanism of
action of hormones of protein nature, and the
properties of specific pure antigens and anti-
bodies. The isolation of toxins is also an
objective. In addition, the in vivo and in vitro
synthesis of proteins is one of the most im-
portant objectives.
Current Trends
The. Soviets are emphasizing studies of the
protein and amino acid composition of im-
portant organisms causing diseases such as
.cholera, typhoid, diptheria, and brucellosis in.
order to determine whether a relation exists
between pathogenicity and the nature of
amino acid content. They are also attempt-
ing to reconstitute partially-denatured pro-
teins for the purpose of duplicating the struc-
ture of living tissue. There is emphasis also
on the use of radioisotopes for study of the
role of proteins in the normal and diseased
organism.
Comparative Trends, U.S.-USSR
Research on the composition and properties
of new proteins is similar in scope in both the
USSR and the United States. Some Soviet
research on the protein and amino acid com-
position of bacteria may have future applica-
tions to BW or CW. Little Soviet effort seems
to be directed toward the nutritional aspects
of proteins and amino acids while consider-
able U.S. effort is being expended in this di-
rection. Soviet research in immunochemistry
is concerned with isolating those particular
fractions of proteins which are responsible
for producing immunity in the human and
animal organism. The ultimate gaal of this
work is to obtain a wide spectrum antigen
which will confer immunity to many diseases.
Estimate, 1967
By 1967, the Soviets probably will have
made significant progress toward clarifying
the relationship between protein composition
of microorganisms and their disease-produc-
ing properties. Soviet attempts to modify
partially-denatured proteins and to effect
their resynthesis may be successful. If this
research is successful, the Soviets may be able
to alter- natural proteins to'form compounds
with greater therapeutic or toxic properties
than known natural compounds. Soviet use
of radioisotopes will result in a more complete
understanding of intermediary metabolism of
proteins and amino acids and may answer
some of the problems on origin of degenera-
tive diseases.
Soviet basic research on the origin of life is
centered in the field of protein chemistry and
particularly in enzymology. Western sci-
entists are only slightly more advanced than
the Soviets in this field and a major advance
may occur by 1967 from either group. The
potential application of a major advance in
understanding the role of proteins and their
constituents in intermediate metabolism is
vast and would affect specifically the fields of
nutritive, infectious, metabolic, mental, and
degenerative diseases, and the economy
generally.
Military Implications
Synthesis of modified proteins with highly
toxic properties would have definite military
implications, particularly in the chemical
warfare field. Success in determining the
fraction of a microorganism which produces
immunity would alter many of the procedures
currently employed in immunization. As a
result, military campaigns would not be
hindered by loss of manpower resulting from
certain diseases. Advances in protein chem-
istry also could solve many problems related
to blood substitutes, storage of blood, mecha-
nisms of shock, a.nd therapy for burns and
blast injuries.
 SATELLITE AND CHINESE COMMUNIST SUPPORT IN BASIC MEDICAL
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
The USSR is scientifically independent of
its Satellite countries and Communist China
in the field of medical research. Satellite
efforts in the field of public health, however,
have benefited the USSR by lowering the
number of man-hours lost through disease,
thereby rendering economic exploitation
more profitable. East Germany and Czecho-
slovakia furnish many instruments and ma-
terials for medical research. Several Satellite
countries are also doing research which will
add slightly to Soviet medical knowledge.
East Germany contributes in the fields of nu-
clear medicine, pharmacology, and biochem-
istry. Hungary has competence in biochem-
istry, particularly in enzymology and protein
studies, and in pharmacology. Poland may
possibly contribute to hematology, physiology,
biochemistry, and microbiology. Czechoslo-
vakia will make contributions in microbiology
and technical apparatus; this country also has
some capability in aviation medicine and has
a sound pharmaceutical industry. The re-
maining Satellites are not expected to add
significantly to Soviet medical knowledge.
Communist China is in no position at
present to contribute to Soviet basic medical
research since problems of public health are
still occupying first priority. ~ The exploita-
tion of traditional Chinese medicine does not
fit into the scheme of Soviet medical research,
and aside from certain work in the biochem-
istry and neurophysiology of the digestive
tract, little basic work is being done. The
much publicized "brain washing" indicates
Chinese Communist field research in certain
aspects of control of human behavior, but no
evidence of original basic work has appeared.
Although there is limited basic research
potential in the. Satellite countries and Com-
munist China, there is little likelihood that
they will institute any broad, full-scale re-
search programs of strategic importance to
Soviet medical science by 1967.
 PART II-VETERINARY SCIENCES
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
There has been a continuous advancement
and expansion of veterinary research capabil-
ities and resources in the Soviet Union since
World War II. The Soviets are expected to
reduce the overall lead of the United States
in veterinary sciences in the next decade.
Veterinary research in the USSR is well
organized and controlled. Despite the in-
creased responsibilities being delegated to
lower levels, centralized control is being main-
tained at the Ministry of Agriculture level.
Although the average Soviet veterinarian has
a lower competency than his Western counter-
part, some veterinary research investigators
are equal to the best in the world. More vet-
erinarians are believed to be engaged in re-
search activity in the USSR than in the United
States. Also, the rate of growth of veterinary
manpower is greater in the USSR.
Basic veterinary research is being given less
emphasis -than applied and developmental
research. The majority of Soviet applied re-
search is devoted to pressing livestock. prob-
lems, and the veterinary program is stressing
the development of biological products and
techniques for the immunization, diagnosis,
and treatment of animal diseases. Livestock
health has been at a low level. in the USSR,
but a major attempt is being made to correct
this situation through disease control, rather
than eradication.
We believe that Soviet research capabilities
in the veterinary sciences will increase con-
siderably during the next ten years and that
the lag between research achievement and
practical application will diminish. Long-
range improvements will undoubtedly result
from better application of research findings
and the continuation of present research com-
petency in such fields as parasitology, epizo-
otiology, and microbiology. The resultant
effect on livestock productivity will be defi-
nite, but gradual, gains which, nevertheless,
will .fall short of currently envisioned goals.
By 1967, there may be a shift from control to
eradication of many of the major livestock
diseases:
Basic veterinary research is expected to in-
crease in stature and volume, and more re-
search attention will be placed on chronic
infections and non-infectious diseases. There
will also be more support of public health and
comparative medical studies. The continua-
tion of present research efforts will lead to the
availability of more effective and refined bio-
logical agents. Some of the best veterinary
advances may be expected in the field of virol-
ogy, where efforts to develop large-scale tis-
sue culture techniques for virus propagation
will probably increase significantly.
The continued expansion of veterinary re-
search resources and scope of interests will
give the USSR a formidable scientific capa-
bility to support antilivestock biological war-
fare efforts. The present Soviet potential in
this regard, is already strong, and facilities
for mass-production of veterinary biologicals
could be readily converted to production of
antianimal agents. Veterinary services will
probably be expanded to provide greater aux-
iliary medical and research support for the
Soviet civil defense system.
 ORGANIZATION, PLANNING, AND CONTROL
Veterinary research in the USSR is the the USSR engage in research investigations
responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture to a lesser extent.
and is conducted primarily in 62 central and Overall plans for veterinary research are
peripheral scientific research veterinary estab- coordinated at the Ministry of Agriculture
lishments which are under the jurisdiction of level and are designed to deal with the most
the Ministry. important livestock problems. The veteri-
The leading central veterinary research in- . nary research... program is first submitted to
stallation, the All-Union Institute of Experi- the Council of Veterinary Affairs, an advisory
mental Veterinary Medicine, organizes and group to the Minister of Agriculture, and then
coordinates the programs undertaken by So- is forwarded to the Minister for approval and
viet veterinary research institutes. The other inclusion in the state agricultural plan for the
five central institutes specialize in various forthcoming year.
fields of veterinary research and provide tech- Centralized research control in the veteri-
nical guidance to the peripheral research es- nary sciences is expected to continue during
tablishments. The latter conduct research as the period of this estimate. As greater re-
centrally directed but carry out investigations sponsibilities are delegated to the republic
which pertain to regional veterinary problems. levels, .the bureaucratic practices which have
In addition, a substantial amount of funds- hampered the successful application of veteri-
mental research in the animal sciences is con- nary research will probably be reduced in the
ducted by institutions of the All-Union Acad- USSR. Research activity in the Soviet veteri=
emy of Agricultural Sciences imeni Lenin, the nary establishment will continue its expan-
Academy of Sciences, USSR, and various sion at all levels, and regional veterinary prob-
zoological institutes. Veterinary schools and lems will be given increased .research atten-
veterinary faculties of agricultural schools of tion.
EXTENT .AND ADEQUACY OF PRESENT AND FUTURE RESEARCH FACILITIES
There has been a continuing expansion of
Soviet veterinary research facilities, equip-
ment, and physical plants in recent years,
designed for a rapid improvement of the So-
viet veterinary capability. Significant im-
provement is apparent in the quality and
quantity of laboratory equipment and ma-
terials being produced in the USSR and less
reliance is being placed on procurement of
these products from Western or Satellite
sources.
Most inadequacies continue to exist in those
institutions engaged in veterinary research
projects of lower priority, despite the expan-
sion of facilities and improved .distribution
of equipment at local levels since 1954. The
proportion of the facilities allocated for re-
search of a fundamental nature remains rel-
atively small as compared with the proportion
of facilities allotted to applied veterinary re-
search devoted to the solution of pressing
livestock problems. As a result of the rapid
expansion, it is believed that more adequate
and modern supplies, equipment, and facil-
ities will be made available in the next ten
years, and will be .more evenly distributed
throughout various .levels of the veterinary
organization.
QUALITY, QUANTITY, AND EFFECTIVE UTILIZATION OF MANPOWER
The training of high quality personnel for
research endeavors has marked the expansion
of veterinary science in the USSR. Also, the
current Soviet emphasis on improved live-
stock productivity is placing increased de-
mands on the training of veterinarians; zoo-
26
 technicians, and their .assistants. The pres-
ent. basic training of Soviet veterinarians is
roughly comparable to that given to Western
veterinarians. Formerly, Soviet veterinary
training tended to emphasize narrow and se-
lected aspects of the science with the result
that the general competency of the average
Soviet veterinarian appears to be somewhat
below his Western .counterpart. Some Soviet
veterinarians, however, have achieved a level
of research ability which compares favorably
with that of leading veterinary scientists in
other parts of the world. These men provide
an expanding nucleus of highly skilled vet-
erinarians in key positions. Moreover, expan-
sion of -the educational system is forcing
changes in veterinary curricula which will
favorably affect the future quality of veteri-
nary scientific manpower in the USSR.
In the last few years, there has been a major
shift in the distribution of Soviet veterinary
personnel. Large numbers have been trans-
ferred from administrative positions to posts
more closely associated with livestock. prob-
lems. If current trends continue, more men
of high calibre will be-freed from day-to-day
administrative responsibilities and will be
available for Soviet veterinary research and
practice.
The exact number of Soviet veterinarians
engaged in research is not known, but over
1,800 individual scientific investigators in the
USSR have been identified through their au-
thorship of veterinary articles which were
published from 1950-55. In comparison, be-
tween 1,300 and 1,400 veterinarians are esti-
mated to be currently engaged in research and
teaching in the United States.
The position of Soviet manpower in veteri-
nary medicine will probably improve more
than the position of U.S. manpower, despite
the establishment of seven new U.S. veteri-
nary schools since World War II. Current
rates of growth of veterinary manpower are
greater in the Soviet Union than in the United
States. There are no indications that these
rates will slacken, especially in view of pres-
sures being applied by the Soviet government
to accelerate livestock productivity. There
are only 17 U.S. veterinary schools compared
to 35 Soviet graduate level institutes for vet-
erinary medicine and 110 schools for the
training of veterinary technicians.
OBJECTIVES, MAJOR ACHIEVEMENTS, TRENDS, AND FUTURE CAPABILITIES IN
VETERINARY SCIENCES
OBJECTIVES
The Soviet veterinary research program is
designed to increase the production of eco-
nomically essential livestock and livestock
products by reducing losses resulting from
livestock diseases and husbandry problems
which mast influence short-term productivity
and expansion of the livestock industry in
the USSR. The shortage of livestock is gen-
erally recognized by Soviet leaders to be a
major agricultural problem, and veterinary
research has assumed .an increasingly prom-
inent role in the Soviet national economy.
Research
The status of veterinary research and tech-
nology in the USSR has improved significant-
ly since World War II. Applied veterinary
research is receiving strong emphasis and defi-
nite, but gradual, improvement may be ex-
pected in the Soviet livestock situation. Im-
plementation of Party directives regarding in-
creases in livestock numbers and productivity
has been noted at .all levels of the Soviet vet-
erinary establishment.
Soviet ability .for research in veterinary
medicine is being enhanced. The capability
of veterinary research workers for original
contributions is not outstanding but is im-
proving. Soviet veterinarians have conducted
competent research, some of which compares
favorably with Western research. Basic vet-
erinary research is given less emphasis than
are applied and developmental investigations.
Although Soviet interest in basic veterinary
27
 research has risen in recent years, it has been
hampered by political support of scientifically
unsound concepts and strong encouragements
by the State for applied research.
Promising lines of endeavor have appeared
in Soviet veterinary research since the recent
reorientation toward increased scientific ex-
change with Western and Satellite countries.
Past restrictions on scientific information has,
in large measure, contributed to the delayed
progress of veterinary research in the USSR.
There has been a trend away from the entity
known as "Soviet veterinary medicine" and
toward a return to conventional research, un-
complicated by pseudo-scientific ideologies
such as those of Lysenko and Bosh'yan. Until
these dogmas were publicly renounced, prog-
ress of veterinary research in such fields as
animal genetics, microbiology, and nutrition
suffered. Soviet capability to exploit Western
research and development no doubt will con-
tinue to improve with the removal of unortho-
dox doctrines and with greater freedom of in-
ternational exchange.
The application of the principles of Pavlov
to most phases of the livestock industry and
to basic zoological research has also been a
predominant trend in the Soviet veterinary
effort. Since 1953, however, the Soviets, while
promoting the same generally accepted prin-
ciples, have been less dogmatic and more
practical- with some evidences being noted of
open disagreement on "Pavlovianism."
Major emphasis is being put on improved
field application of research findings. Slow
and incomplete utilization of the practical
benefits of veterinary research is a major
deficiency which has contributed to the rel-
atively low level of animal health in the USSR.
There is a major attempt being made to rem-
edy this situation and some immediate bene-
fits should be realized. Long-range improve-
ments, however, will be based on continuation
of the reasonably good capability which cur-
rently exists in the research on infectious
livestock diseases, disinfection, and parasi-
tology. Steady progress has been made in vet-
erinary virology since World War II. Soviet
veterinary viral research often assumes a
crash character. As a result, it is developing
more rapidly than many, of the other veteri-
nary disciplines, presumably because most of
the livestock diseases of prime economic im-
portance to the USSR are of viral etiology.
The approach to problems of livestock dis-
ease through control rather than eradication
has been an important trend. This philoso-
phy has been predominant largely because of
the relatively high prevalence of serious dis-
eases, such as brucellosis, foot-and-mouth dis-
ease, and hog cholera, which appear to render
programs of disease eradication economically
infeasible in the USSR. As a result, Soviet
veterinary research is emphasizing the devel-
opment of biological products and methods
for improved immunization, diagnosis, and
treatment of animal diseases.
Veterinary scientists have tended to con-
centrate their disease studies on the applied
aspects of epizootiology, microbiology, immu-
nology, parasitology, and toxicology. Efforts
to control foot-and-mouth disease, brucellosis,
hog cholera, Newcastle disease, anthrax, the
encephalitides, and parasitic diseases are re-
ceiving the major attention in Soviet livestock
disease efforts.
Biologicals
Soviet production of biologicals has improved
measurably, and over 26 bioplants are known
to be producing some 80 biological products
for veterinary use. Major emphasis has been.
placed on the development of live, dry vac-
cines and improved diagnostic agents, par-
. titularly those of an allergenic nature. De-
spite the enhanced capabilities currently dem-
onstrated by the Soviet veterinary bioin-
dustry for lyophilization and mass-production,
shortages of vitally needed veterinary prod-
ucts, such as certain broad-spectrum anti-
biotics, continue to exist for field use. There
is widespread veterinary interest in the devel-
opment and extensive usage of antibiotics,
but veterinary research in antibiotics, though
promising, appears to be repetitive of Western
research.
28 rnrT~+rr~~~Tmx.:~
 COMPARATIVE TRENDS, U.S.-USSR
Research
Although strong efforts are currently un-
derway in Soviet veterinary research, the
USSR lags the United States in practically all
fields of livestock research and production.
This lag is gradually narrowing as veterinary
medicine in the USSR continues its rapid
advancement, particularly in the application
of knowledge gained through research on the
prevention and control of animal diseases.
They have achieved excellent results in re-
cent years in the reduction of some of the
most serious livestock infectious diseases.
Soviet research has equaled and at times ex-
celled U.S. efforts in such basic fields of vet-
erinary science as helminthology, entomology,
and other sub-fields of parasitology; physiolo-
gy; toxicology; and some areas of epizootiolo-
gy. Soviet veterinary research in immunolo-
gy, microbiology, and pathology, has reached
acceptable levels of proficiency but generally
is inferior to U.S. research.
The quality of Soviet reporting in the vet-
erinary sciences appears to be poor, as does
the general understanding and use of sound
scientific methodology and laboratory disci-
pline. Published veterinary research in the
USSR is frequently of inferior quality by U.S.
standards, and avowed scientific accomplish-
ments are often insufficiently supported with
factual material to permit verification.
Despite a decentralization trend in recent
years, Soviet research programs in veterinary
medicine continue to be governed from the
national level. In contradistinction, U.S. vet-
erinary research is not federally controlled al-
though amajor amount of investigative work
is conducted by federal employees or through
government grants or contracts. A consid-
erable number of able veterinarians are em-
ployed by U.S. manufacturers of biological,
pharmaceutical, feed, and other commercial
products. These firms support research in
their own installations and also make grants
to agricultural experiment stations.
Veterinary specialization is roughly com-
parable in both countries although private
practitioners, which are a feature of U.S. vet-
erinary medicine, are not known in the USSR.
There are more .veterinarians and veterinary
personnel believed to be engaged in research
activity in the USSR than in the United
States. Veterinary practice in the United
States is so lucrative that it is difficult to in-
terest many capable personnel in the lesser-
paying fields of veterinary research and teach-
ing. As a result, the shift to economically
insignificant fields, such as small animal med-
icine, has decreased the U.S. number of vet-
erinary research workers. In the USSR, this
scientific manpower is not lost and a high
proportion of veterinarians engage in research
pursuits for remunerative and recognition
reasons.
Although Soviet veterinarians are extend-
ing their fields of research interest, U.S. vet-
erinary investigators are doing considerably
more work in such fields ` of comparative
medicine as radiobiology, pathology, surgery,
pharmacology, epidemiology, and aviation
medicine.
Absolute eradication of the serious live-
stock diseases of economic importance is the
ultimate goal of veterinary research in both
countries. Whereas the Soviet veterinary es-
tablishment is completely geared to the agri-
cultural economy, there are definite organi-
zational and research trends in U.S. veteri-
nary medicine directed towards greater ac-
tivity in public health fields. Diagnostic capa-
bility is considered. to be inferior in the Soviet
Union where laboratory services and adequate
diagnostic agents are not as readily available
as in the United States. Animal disease re-
porting has improved tremendously in the
United States in recent years, but such report-
ing is better controlled in the USSR as a result
of collectivization and domination by central
authority. The progress shown by the So-
viets in the recently improved control of im-
portant infectious diseases of livestock has
been very great. Furthermore, this progress
has been achieved in a country whose hygienic
practices in animal husbandry border on a
primitive level in most areas. Despite the
lower general competency of Soviet veterinar-
ians, more professional attention, by sheer
29
 weight of numbers and: better distribution of
veterinarians and trained technicians, has
been made available for the economically
significant species of animals.
Biologicals
No Soviet biological products or techniques
for practical veterinary use have been devel-
oped which can be considered superior to those
now available in the United States. Soviet
veterinary investigators have demonstrated a
proficiency for exploiting research achieve-
ments from other parts of the world. For
example, the U.S. Strain # 19 vaccine for
brucellosis prophylaxis in cattle (used since
1940 in the United States) has had wide-
spread usage in the USSR since 1954. Re-
cently, this vaccine has been adapted for
large-scale immunization of people who are
iri close occupational contact with sheep and
goats. in endemic areas. While they have
been slow in adopting foreign work in the
past, current trends indicate that sound U.S.
and other Western accomplishments are be-
ing incorporated rapidly into Soviet veteri-
nary and livestock programs.
Considerable reliance continues to be placed
on large-scale use of dry, live vaccines in the
USSR. Because of the potential hazard of
spread to unaffected areas,. widespread use of
these live bacterial and viral strains has been
accepted reluctantly in the United States and
then only for diseases for which no other satis-
factory immunogenic agent has -been devel-
oped.
ESTIMATE, 1967
We believe that Soviet veterinary research
capabilities will increase considerably during
.the next ten years. Soviet leaders will re-
main keenly aware of the importance of vet-
erinary research to economic development
and will continue to support it vigorously.
By 1967, the Soviet Union .will command
greater respect for its veterinary research
ability.
There is no indication that the current en-
couragement of applied science will cause a
neglect of basic or long-range veterinary re-
search. The long existing discrepancy be-
tween veterinary research and .practical ap-
plication will continue for the foreseeable
future, although we expect the lag to dimin-
ish. The resultant effect on livestock pro-
ductivity and numbers will .not be great but
will gradually benefit Soviet food potential.
The impressive goals set by Khrushchev and
the current Five-Year Plan, however, are un-
realistic. "Crash-type" efforts will continue
in veterinary research for improved means of
protecting livestock from serious infectious
diseases, parasitisms, and nutritional disor-
ders which are prevalent in the USSR. More
veterinary research will be directed to studies
of livestock nutrition, genetics, artificial in-
semination, reproductive disorders, regional
epizootiology, food technology, antibiotic de-
velopment, and broader utilization of anti-
biotics in the livestock and food industries.
Some of the best achievements are expected
in the field of virology which will stress an in-
creasing number of fundamental investiga-
tions, such as the study of protein structure
and synthesis, purification, recombination,
controlled .variability, effect of ultrasonics,
and intracellular "multiplication."
It is probable that Soviet efforts to develop
large-scale tissue culture methods for virus
propagation will increase significantly during
the period of this estimate. Stress may be
placed on studies relating to the immuno-
genesis, synergistic relationships, host inter-
actions, latent infection, and virulence of
viral organisms. The Soviets can be expected
to continue their efforts for improving lyo-
philization techniques and for screening
exotic and indigenous strains of viruses for
their various properties.
Support to human medical research by So-
viet veterinary workers will be expanded as it
has in the United States in recent years.
Veterinary research for experimental animal
data for extrapolation to man will be provided
on a greater scale in studies such as those on
 physiological stress, pathogenesis, wound in-
fection, and space medicine.
Whereas problems of livestock productivity
will continue to dominate the veterinary re-
search program in the USSR, veterinary in-
vestigations on those diseases communicable
from animals to man will be increased. The
zoonotic diseases not only will receive in-
creased research attention, but more Soviet
veterinarians will become active in public
health efforts. The present program to make
husbandry personnel more aware of proper
hygienic and management practices will prob-
ably be intensified.
By 1967, there may be a shift in the direc-
tion of Soviet veterinary medicine from con-
trol of major epizootic infections to ultimate
eradication. Although study of the acute in-
fectious diseases of animals will continue on
a large scale and substantial progress in their
control will be demonstrated, increased re-
search emphasis will be given to control of
non-infectious and chronic diseases of live-
stock.
Biologicals
Increased veterinary research potential
probably will lead to the availability of more
effective and refined immunizing, diagnostic,
and therapeutic agents by 1967. The heavy
reliance on the use of vaccines and other
prophylactic biologicals will continue but. not,
as now, to the point of sacrificing good sani-
tary measures. Soviet development of a single
immunogenic agent which is protective
against a combination of animal diseases is
considered improbable within the period of
this estimate although advances in this direc-
tion will be achieved. Assay of veterinary
biological and pharmaceutical products prior
to utilization in the field will be improved over
the rather crude testing which has character-
ized Soviet quality control of these products.
Therapeutic agents with viricidal properties,
particularly among the antibiotics, will oc-
cupy aprominent part of future veterinary
research activity.
MILITARY IMPLICATIONS
Improving Soviet capabilities for veterinary
research, development, and production will
give the USSR a stronger potential for anti-
livestock biological warfare efforts. The scale
and orientation of effort in certain areas of
animal disease research, as well as the gen-
eral level of competence, are sufficient to con-
tribute significantly to future developments
in antilivestock BW. In particular, Soviet
facilities for production of veterinary biologi-
cals could be converted readily to production
of antianimal agents. This Soviet scientific
potential for support of an antianimal pro-
gram, considered together with the extreme
vulnerability of the U.S. livestock industry,
constitutes a real threat to the United States
in a cold or active war.
The increasing capability for original re-
search in various fields of veterinary medicine
may result in improved Soviet defense for live-
stock against nuclear, biological, and chemi-
cal weapons that will at least parallel U.S.
progress in these fields. Continuation of the
active veterinary effort to produce immuno-
genic, diagnostic, and therapeutic agents will
improve Soviet defensive capabilities and may
progressively override many of-the deficiencies
in livestock management in the USSR. Con-
siderable indoctrination and refresher train-
ing will continue to be carried out on the
veterinary aspects of defense against mass de-
struction weapons. This will result in im-
proved hygienic, disinfection, and quarantine
practices as well as more effective efforts. by
those agencies responsible for animal disease
control.
It is expected that the role of veterinary
services in the widely organized Soviet civil
defense system in such areas as animal care,
sanitation, and decontamination will be ex-
tended to give greater auxiliary support for
human defense. Certain products, such as
antianthrax serum and vaccine, will continue
to be prescribed and stockpiled for emergency
human use. Research on bovine and other
animal plasma as blood extenders for human
transfusion and other purposes may be more
actively pursued although their use in clinical
human medicine has been on the decline.
31
 SATELLITE AND CHINESE COMMUNIST SUPPORT IN VETERINARY RESEARCH
AND DEVELOPMENT
The USSR is not dependent upon the scien-
tific veterinary capabilities of the Satellite
countries or Communist China although cer-
tain of their capabilities which complement
Soviet research are exploited.
East Germany, Czechoslovakia, and Hun-
gary have made outstanding contributions to
world knowledge of the veterinary sciences.
The achievements of internationally recog-
nized veterinary scientists and institutions in
these countries will add to Soviet knowledge,
particularly in such '.....,fields as microbiology,
biochemistry, and pharmacology, and in the
development of technical equipment. Increas-
ing enrollments in higher educational insti-
tutions, reorganization of research institutes,
and preferential treatment of scientists ap-
pear designed to increase the general veter-
inary capabilities of Satellite countries.
The increased flow of scientific information
and visits. between veterinary scientists in
these countries and the Soviet Union will
probably result in broadening the base of vet-
erinary research in the USSR. The Satellites
and Communist China, however, can be ex-
pected to give only limited support in veter-
inary research of strictly military significance.