LONG-RANGE CAPABILITIES OF THE SOVIET UNION IN MAJOR SCIENTIFIC FIELDS 1957-67 -MONOGRAPH X MEDICAL AND VETERINARY SCIENCES

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t IFS L' cjI c_ A F DO } iri 4 Ld JUN 1958 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE REPORT N? 66 LONG-RANGE CAPABILITIES OF THE SOVIET UNION IN MAJOR SCIENTIFIC FIELDS 1957 - 67 MONOGRAPH X MEDICAL AND VETERINARY SCIENCES APPROVED FOR RELEASED DATE: 11-17-2009 CIA/SI 16-58 1 May 1958 CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY OFFICE OF SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE EE)INIFIDENTIAt Z, ?- I ?z PREFACE This monograph on Soviet medical and veterinary sciences is one of a series of estimates of the capabilities of the Soviet Union over the next ten years in major scientific fields. Mono- graphs II through XI in the series are designed to support the conclusions found in Monograph I, which is an overall evalua- tion of Soviet science and will be published last. The intelligence provided in this volume (X) emphasizes the trends in Soviet medical and veterinary research. It also points out the signifi- cance of such research, estimates the probability of Soviet at- tainment of their stated goals within the next 10 years, and in- cludes some comparison with Western efforts in strategic and priority areas of work. Medical sciences are treated in part I, and veterinary sciences are treated in part II of this monograph. The titles of all monographs in this series are as follows: MONOGRAPH NO. I II IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI TITLE Summary Estimate Policy, Organization, Planning, and Con- trol of Soviet Science and Technology Scientific and Technical Manpower in the USSR Physics Mathematics Geophysical Chemistry Metallurgy Electronics Medical and Veterinary Biological and Agricultural Sciences FOREWORD Part I (Medical Sciences) is designed to highlight those areas of research and development of immediate or potential concern to the national security. No attempt is made to por- tray a balanced and comprehensive picture of all aspects of So- viet medicine. The estimates and conclusions are evaluated in terms of Soviet intentions and goals, which may differ from those of the United States. Part II (Veterinary Sciences) provides an assessment of vet- erinary research and also considers this research within the framework of veterinary practice. Information available as of 1 January 1958 was used in pre- paring this report. CONTENTS MEDICAL SCIENCES Page PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . 1 ORGANIZATION, PLANNING, AND CONTROL . . . . 3 EXTENT AND ADEQUACY OF PRESENT AND FUTURE RESEARCH FACILITIES . . . . . . . . . . . 4 QUALITY,, QUANTITY, AND EFFECTIVE UTILIZATION OF MANPOWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 SOVIET OBJECTIVES, MAJOR ACHIEVEMENTS, TRENDS, AND FUTURE CAPABILITIES IN BASIC RESEARCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Space Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Control of Human Behavior . . . . . . . . . 10 Nuclear Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Health Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Infectious Disease Research and Development . . . . 15 Civil Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Polar Medical Research .. . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Nutrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Basic Protein Research . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 SATELLITE AND CHINESE COMMUNIST SUPPORT IN BASIC MEDICAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT . 24 PART II VETERINARY SCIENCES SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . 25 ORGANIZATION, PLANNING, AND CONTROL . . . . 26 0-1 vii CONTENTS (Continued) Page EXTENT AND ADEQUACY OF PRESENT AND FUTURE RESEARCH FACILITIES . . . . . . . . . . 26 QUALITY, QUANTITY, AND EFFECTIVE UTILIZATION OF MANPOWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 OBJECTIVES, MAJOR ACHIEVEMENTS, TRENDS, AND FUTURE CAPABILITIES IN VETERINARY SCI- ENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Current Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Comparative Trends, U.S.-USSR . . . . . . . . . 29 Estimate, 1967 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Military Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 SATELLITE AND CHINESE COMMUNIST SUPPORT IN VETERINARY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT .. . 32 LONG-RANGE CAPABILITIES OF THE SOVIET UNION IN MAJOR SCIENTIFIC FIELDS 1957-67 MONOGRAPH X MEDICAL AND VETERINARY SCIENCES PART I MEDICAL SCIENCES SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The responsibility for Soviet organization, planning, and control of medical research is highly centralized through the Academy of Medical Sciences of the Ministry of Health, USSR. Although there is strong control of all Soviet medical research, there remains suf- ficient flexibility for maximum use of research assets. The current trend toward decentrali- zation of administrative. authority to the re- public level should provide increased local benefits from advances in medicine. Research facilities engaged in priority in- vestigations are located in the Moscow-Lenin- grad area. Most of these facilities are ade- quately equipped by U.S. standards. The ma- jority of facilities outside of this area are poor- ly equipped. Within the next 10 years, a marked improvement in the quality and quantity of research facilities and equipment, both in the Moscow-Leningrad area and the Republics, will provide the material means for broadening research frontiers.. Some of the leading Soviet medical sci- entists are equal in competence to those of the West. However, the Soviets lack depth in numbers of outstanding scientists and, therefore, are unable to devote adequate at- tention to research of low priority. During the period of this estimate, increasing num- bers of competent medical scientists will be trained. This increased scientific manpower, along with the increased facilities and equip- ment, will result in a broadening of research areas and permit moderate decentralization of research to the republic level. Soviet research on space medicine now maintains a significant lead over that of the Western nations particularly in flight rocket physiology, space flight equipment, and pre- conditioning for gravitational stress. This advantage will increase as long as they main- tain superior ability to test laboratory results under actual space conditions. Future Soviet leadership in space research will be contingent on resolution of the problems of propulsion systems, advanced space vehicles, and re- entry. There is no aeromedical obstacle which prevents the Soviets from orbiting a human being for a period of hours or days within the next year. Soviet accomplishments in nuclear medi- cine will continue to lag those of the Western world in health physics, in the use of radio- isotopes for diagnosis and therapy, and in pre- vention of radiation injury. On the other hand, the USSR will continue to lead the West in the study of effects of radiation on the nervous system. At international meetings the Soviets will officially subscribe to low maximum radiation exposure, but they prob- ably will not let rigid health standards hinder their nuclear energy activities. The present Soviet emphasis on research on bacterial diseases will be deemphasized during the period of this estimate, except for refinements in bacterial vaccines. Increased emphasis will be placed on viral and rick- ettsial research and the development. of broad- spectrum vaccines and antiviral antibiotics. We believe that the Soviets will continue to emphasize the defensive aspects of human BW but also will maintain research and de- velopment which could support an offensive human BW program. Maximum Soviet effort in the medical sci- ences will continue to be focused on attaining a greater understanding of the factors under- lying human behavior, emphasizing. the fields of neurophysiology and psychophysiology while rejecting psychodynamic principles. Although the Soviets will continue to be on a par with Western nations in the overall field of neurophysiology, they will maintain superi- ority in the study of conditioning and "func- tional" neuropathology and the application of these principles for: (a) increasing the potential of the Soviet man with. respect to his physical, social, and political environment. (b) creating international distrust and anxiety through "unconditioning" and "re- conditioning" techniques. Soviet research and development work on antibiotics and therapeutic drugs for chemical warfare will parallel the West in approach, but the West will continue to maintain a lead in the development of these substances. Im` general, the USSR and the United States will probably be on a par in accomplishments in the field of whole blood, plasma, and plasma extenders. Soviet production of drugs, biologicals, and medical 'equipment .for civil defense purposes will lag that of the United States for the next 5 years but will approach U.S. levels by 1967. It is estimated that a moderate civil defense stockpiling program will be completed by this time. U.S. advantages in civil defense, derived from decentralized medical centers and supe- rior quality of professional personnel, will be 1 offset by continued Soviet training of the civilian population in the management of mass casualties, coupled with an extensively organized and manned civil defense program. Present capabilities of the Soviet Union in .,Polar medicine are equal to those of the United States. The Soviets possess the essen- tial medical principles concerned with pro- tection against cold and will be able to con- trol human factors in polar operations through the application of known bioengi- neering principles. Soviet nutritional research is similar to Western work of more..than a: decade ago. While considerable progress will be made with respect to increasing the quantity and improv- ing the distribution of food products, the So- viets will remain behind the West in the mili- tary and therapeutic application of advanced nutritional principles. Soviet accomplishments in the field of basic protein chemistry generally are less note- worthy than those . of Western scientists. However, the Soviets are currently engaged in unique investigations on changes in the prop- erties of proteins which result from struc- tural alteration by both. chemical and physical means. These studies have considerable sig- nificance and could. lead to major advances in the development of highly. toxic substances, the formation of "universal" antigens and antibodies, and in understanding the role of intermediary metabolism in metabolic and de- generative diseases. . There is. considerable basic research poten- tial.in .the Satellite countries and Communist 2 GG4W4DEi NTI A:T China on which the Soviet Union may rely for medical support in the future. There is little chance, however, that these countries will institute any broad, full scale research program of strategic importance to Soviet medical sciences by 1967. ORGANIZATION, PLANNING, AND CONTROL ORGANIZATION Research in medical science is conducted by three major groups under the Council of Ministers, USSR. These three are the Min- istry of Health, with its Academy of Medical Sciences (AMS), medical schools, and Repub- lic Ministries of Health; the Academy of Sci- ences, USSR, with its Union Republic Acad- emies; and the Ministry. of Defense, with its Main Medical Administration. The AMS is an integral part of the Ministry of Health, USSR, and organizes, plans, and controls medical research in the Soviet Union. The Academy is a highly centralized organi- zation which is subordinate to the Learned Medical Council of the Ministry of Health, USSR, in research matters and to the Col- legium of the Ministry in administrative af- fairs. The AMS is composed of members elected from the leading Soviet medical sci- entists, some of whom are associated directly with institutions under the Academy and some of whom are associated with other insti- tutions. Members of the Academy are desig- nated' active or corresponding, according to their scientific contributions. As of 15 August 1956, there were 88 active and 123 correspond- ing members. Under the Ministry of Health, USSR, re- search is conducted by the Academy Insti- tutes which emphasize basic research and by non-Academy Institutes of the Ministry, where more specific problems are pursued. Research institutes of the Ministries of Health of the Union Republics generally investigate local problems. The AMS maintains liaison with the Acad- emy of Sciences, USSR, the Academies of Sci- ences of the Union Republics, and the scien- tific institutes and societies of the USSR and foreign countries. This liaison is effected through commissions and conferences and by individual Academy members who hold posi- tions in non-Academy Institutions. The Academy of Medical Sciences has no subordi- nate counterparts in the Union Republics. Close liaison is maintained between the AMS and the military medical services of the Armed Forces. A specialist in military medi- cine is assigned as one of the vice presidents of the AMS and the Surgeon General of the Armed Forces functions as an active member of the AMS. In addition, there is a Military Commission of the AMS Presidium which or- ganizes, plans, and controls the programming of military medical projects. PLANNING The Five-Year Plan of Medical Research of the Ministry of Health, USSR, is an integral and important part of national economic planning of the Soviet Union. The current 1956-60 plan will be replaced by a 1959-65 plan,* which must be submitted in draft form by 1 July 1958, and will be guided by research plans of the AMS, the medical institutes un- der the Ministry of Higher Education, and in- stitutes under the' Ministry of Health. CONTROL Planning bodies are required to check re- search progress continually at all levels of administration in order to assure the satis- factory progress of the plan. In addition, the Presidium appoints review commissions, who visit unannounced at the institutes to check plan fulfillment and to appraise the work of individual scientists. The Communist Party maintains direct control of the AMS through the Party organi- zation within the Presidium and its Secre- tariat. The Presidium, AMS, exercises con- * According to some sources this plan may be ex- tended to 1972. trol through its Party bureau and directs the network of Party units operating at all levels. The three key figures in the control of the AMS are the academician secretary, the presi- dent, and the secretary of the Communist Party Bureau. These three officials are gen- erally Party members. To date, the presi- dents of the AMS also have been deputies to the Supreme Soviet. As part of the current Soviet trend toward decentralization, directors of institutes and research groups working on local problems in outlying areas have been given greater au- thority in the formulation and execution of research projects. Encouragement of ethnic pride will help to resolve regional medical problems and will tend to reduce dependence on Moscow and Leningrad facilities and personnel. This de- centralization of authority does not mean autonomy and will become effective only as greater numbers of competent scientists be- come available at the republic level. We be- lieve that centralized control of research and strong adherence to priority, objectives will continue during the period of this estimate, and that this will enhance their ability to accomplish those national objectives which are considered vital to the security and econ- omy of the Soviet Union. EXTENT AND ADEQUACY OF PRESENT AND FUTURE RESEARCH FACILITIES The major medical research facilities in the Soviet Union are located largely in the Mos- cow-Leningrad area. Of the 49 medical in- stitutes and laboratories under the Academy of Medical Sciences and the Academy of Sci- ences, USSR, 32 are located in Moscow, 6 in Leningrad, 1 in Kiev, 1 in Sukhumi, and the remaining 9 among various universities. FACILITIES Many of the buildings housing research centers, such as those of the Institute of Serums and Vaccines imeni Mechnikov, the Military Medical Academy imeni Kirov, and the Institute of Blood Transfusion in Lenin- grad, are old and in varying degrees of dilapi- dation. Some of the older buildings are be- ing replaced. The poor appearance of many of the insti- tute buildings does not necessarily reflect on the quality of equipment or the work emanat- ing from them. Although the United States has a greater tendency to replace old build- ings, the Soviets choose to do so only where better facilities are essential for adequate research. EQUIPMENT The quantity and quality of equipment as- signed to an institute or laboratory usually reflect the priority of projects being pursued. For example, the Gamaleya Institute is ade- quately equipped to permit the necessary re- search support and experimental production of biologicals concerned with infectious dis- eases. The range of its activities can be com- pared in many respects with the support ren- dered by research components of U.S. com- mercial biological plants. The Military Medi- cal Academy imeni Kirov is well-equipped, al- though housed in old buildings as are the In- stitutes of Experimental Medicine and of Tuberculosis in Leningrad. The Institute for the Production of Poliomyelitis Vaccine, now under construction, will be one of the best equipped institutes in the USSR. All of its production equipment was purchased from the United States and Canada. Some of the newer laboratories and insti- tutes, especially those built in the past 5 years, are still lacking in laboratory services, such as gas, but are otherwise well-equipped with microscopes, ultracentrifuges, electrophoresis apparatus, electroencephalographs, electro- cardiographs, radioisotopes and Geiger count- ers. Some of the more elaborate scientific equipment in U.S. laboratories, such as flame photometers and scintillation counters, are found in only a few leading Soviet establish- ments. Although much laboratory equipment has been purchased from the West, a considerable quantity is now produced in the USSR. Old U.S. lend-lease centrifuges and refrigerators are seen in laboratories along with new Soviet copies and other items of native design. Their policy is to attain national self-sufficiency in the design and production of research equip- ment. Equipment of native design is some- times crude and cumbersome in appearance but appears serviceable. Examples of Soviet designed ionophoresis apparatus have been seen, and one observation, in 1955, was re- ported of a self-recording oxyhemograph. This was produced by the Krasnogordeyets Medical Instrument Plant * in Leningrad and was claimed to be superior to all similar for- eign and domestic devices. The Institute of Blood Transfusion at Leningrad has foreign equipment, Soviet copies, and devices of na- tive design, as well as crude equipment made at the laboratory. . Many Soviet institutes and laboratories con- struct some of their own equipment. The in- struments are designed by technicians (equip- ment engineers) and, although crude, are of good mechanical design. Institutes concentrating on clinical re- search are deficient in some of the necessary basic equipment although several unique pieces of apparatus have been seen. Exam- ples include an instrument for increasing in- tracranial pressure and an apparatus for the study of kinesthetic analysers of the cerebral cortex. It is estimated that the supply of good equipment and facilities will increase over the period of this estimate to meet the expanding program of medical research. Satisfactory and sufficient equipment will be made avail- able to the major Soviet laboratories engaged in high priority projects but will not be avail- able to others in the quantities found in most Western medical facilities. QUALITY, QUANTITY, AND EFFECTIVE UTILIZATION OF MANPOWER The Soviet Union is training medical sci- entists in ever increasing numbers, many equal in competence to those in the Free World. The lack of sufficient top research manpower to investigate adequately all medi- cal problems of economic importance is being overcome by a rapidly expanding system of higher education. Graduates of the uni- versity system appear to possess sound the- oretical knowledge in most fields and com- pare favorably with U.S. university graduates. The Kandidat degree in medical sciences is the near equivalent to the Ph.D. or D. Sc. in the United States. The Soviet Daktor is a higher degree and has no exact equivalent in the United States. The Soviet Union is producing more than twice as many physicians per year as is the United States. Medical school training does not emphasize research in basic medical sci- * This is a major facility for the design and pro- duction of medical equipment and employs over 3,000 workers, including over 400 design engineers. ence to the same degree as does the university system. Under the Ministry of Health, there are 78 medical schools which train medical practi- tioners and which are not affiliated with the regular universities. At least one medical school exists in each republic and each major city. Candidates for medical schools are selected by competitive examination from 10- year secondary school graduates. These ex- aminations are supposed to insure that 94 to 96 percent of the candidates will complete the required curriculum. The medical course re- quires six years of study; the last two years are devoted to practical experience. Medical diplomas can be earned in the fields of sanita- tion, pediatrics, or general medicine. After graduation, the physician is assigned for ap- proximately three years' practice in an insti- tution or location designated by the State. After this, the physician may apply to one of approximately 12 postgraduate schools for specialization, or he can apply to an institute of the AMS for three years of graduate work leading to the Kandidat degree with a subse- quent doubling of his salary. Beyond this, the physician with a Kandidat degree may apply for the Doktor degree, and upon a suc- cessful defense of his thesis, receives the de- gree; his salary is again doubled. Finally, if a physician renders outstanding contribu- tions to medical science, he may be appointed to the Academy of Medical Science as corre- sponding member or academician, for which he receives additional compensation. According to qualified Western observers, the teaching staffs at medical schools and postgraduate schools appear to be competent, and the students appear to receive training only slightly less effective than that of U.S. students. The opinion that Soviet medical workers are vastly inferior in quality to those in the United States can no longer be de- fended on unequivocal grounds. From the qualitative standpoint, the individual Soviet physician is only slightly less competent than his U.S. counterpart due to deficiencies in basic science and clinical medical training. The USSR enrolled approximately 26,000 students in its medical schools in 1956, in con- trast to 8,000 enrolled in the United States. The Soviet claim of 94 to 96 percent gradua- tion of students enrolled in medical schools is partly borne out by the fact that 19,517 students were enrolled in the 6-year medical program in 1950, and an estimated 18,000 graduated in 1956.* The USSR has recently indicated that the supply of physicians is reaching the optimal point and that means of improving quality at the expense of quan- tity are being considered. At the end of 1956, there were 329,441 physicians in the USSR (70 percent of which were women) as opposed to 221,700 physicians in all categories in the United States as of 1 July 1956. Soviet emphasis on quantity of medical manpower is due to the fact that the primary medical problems in the USSR are related to public health and preventive medicine. Therefore, the policy has been to saturate the * The Soviet figures are believed to be correct, plus or minus 10 percent. population with large numbers of physicians who are trained to diagnose and treat illnesses which produce high morbidity rates. Re- search personnel have concentrated on devel- oping better therapy for the large number of physicians to administer under circumstances prescribed by central authority. It is be- lieved that, within the period of this estimate, the Soviets will curtail the presently expand- ing physician training program to maintain a level of one physician to 'about 500 popu- lation. As of mid-57, the total number of individ- uals employed in health sciences in the USSR, including those with academic degrees, was 370,500, representing 25 percent of the total scientific and technical manpower. In the United States, approximately 448,300 individ- uals were employed in health sciences, repre- senting about 34 percent of the total scientific and technical manpower. The Soviets have 17,600 persons working in health sciences, and an additional 7,600 working in biological sciences trained to the Kandidat or Doktor level, in contrast to the-U.S. figures of 1,300 in health sciences, plus 16,900 in biological sciences trained to the Ph.D. and D.Sc. level. In practice, many of the Soviets holding health science degrees are actually working in biological research, while many U.S. hold- ers of biological science degrees are working in health science areas. There are totals of 25,200 Soviet workers and 18,200 U.S. workers functioning in essentially the same area. The USSR is now supplying sufficient com- petent personnel to broaden the frontiers of priority medical research, while minimizing work of, lower priority. The continued train- ing of medical manpower, however, will allow more competent workers to do research in lower priority areas. The USSR will continue to emphasize train- ing in the basic medical sciences and, by 1967, Soviet medical researchers generally will be on a par with those in the United States, and may be more advanced than the United States in certain priority fields such as space medi- cine and control of .human behavior. 6 GQNRDHN9Phtb SOVIET OBJECTIVES, MAJOR ACHIEVEMENTS, TRENDS, AND FUTURE CAPABILITIES IN BASIC RESEARCH SPACE MEDICINE Objectives Soviet scientists have clearly indicated their intention to solve those basic bioengineering problems which are associated with human operation of high-speed and high altitude air- craft and space vehicles. By 1955, Soviet research in the field of space medicine indicated approaches which were novel and untried by Western scientists. Some of these approaches have led to impor- tant but as yet incompletely understood ad- vances. The Soviet Union has an extremely active space flight program which includes biophysical and medical studies relating to upper atmosphere and space. Basic Aspects of Space Medicine Flight. Rocket Physiology - Fundamental physiological data from animals exposed to space conditions are being obtained through the use of Soviet-designed equipment which is modified for telemetering biological data such as heart beat, blood pressure, temperature, and respiratory activity to ground receiving stations. The results of this animal research, during flights at 1,000 mile altitudes, can be correlated with simulated high altitude data and will afford the Soviets an earlier solution to the disturbances that are anticipated in manned space vehicles. Perception of Movement - There is consid- erable effort by Soviet scientists to derive and apply formulae for computing such factors as position, acceleration, and G-forces which af- fect spatial vision as fixation points change. Special attention is given to plotting eye movements and internal eye processes relative to time. The amplitude of eye movement or timing angle has been studied quantitatively in order to derive an objective index of the awareness of test subjects in sensing and esti- mating distances. The experimental designs, research procedures, and conclusions by So- viet scientists are generally of good quality. Published laboratory data, however, is some- times too meager to allow adequate evalua- tion. Adequate evaluation is also precluded by the absence of variance data. Acceleration - New fundamental concepts on the biological effects of acceleration, if con- firmed and extrapolated from current animal experimentation, will enable the USSR to sim- ulate and eventually solve many bioengineer- ing problems associated with rocket and space flight. The Soviets probably will lead in the study of acceleration effects on both periph- eral sensory nerve functions as well as motor behavior thereby increasing the efficiency of various techniques for postponing or reducing the adverse physiological effects of accelera- tion under space flight conditions. Soviet scientists have drawn special attention to transverse accelerations by their launching and orbiting of the Sputnik II dog, Laika. The horizontal positioning of the dog, perpen- dicularly to the direction of acceleration, pre- vented substantial displacement of blood from vitally important organs, such as the brain. This positioning increases the resistance of the living animal to overloads by a large factor. Soviet experiments, showed that a 40-fold transverse overload for 15 seconds failed to produce adverse physiological disturbances in chimpanzees. They also claim that a 10- to 12-fold acceleration overload is fully permis- sible for man. This use of transverse posi- tioning materially reduces the problem of ac- celeration for living animals. The Soviets point out that only the involuntary delay in breathing, produced by rocket acceleration, limits the permissible time of action of an overload. The problem of involuntary delay in breathing can be overcome presumably through the use of forced breathing. * *A human normally requires a conscious effort to exhale at altitude above 40,000 feet because of reduced barometric pressure. Human Engineering Physiological Data - Soviet scientists have demonstrated a high degree of capability in instrument development for bioengineering problems. Telemetering equipment has been adapted to transmit physiological data from rockets and space satellites to ground record- ing instruments. These ground instruments record physiological changes in animals dur- ing flight by oscillographic techniques as part of the study on environmental stresses of space travel. Their equipment is capable of measuring both qualitative and quantitative changes during flight as altitude and accelera- tion change. The availability of such equip- ment gives the USSR a technological advan- tage in their space medicine research pro- gram. Human Space Flight Equipment - Soviet engineering and technological abilities are on a par with, or slightly ahead of, U.S. knowl- edge in most respects. In addition to the de- velopment of normal pressure cabins, in which pressure is maintained by means of a boost from the atmospheric air, there is evidence that the Soviets have developed a type of pres- sure cabin which maintains air pressure and the exchange of gases by regeneration devices inside the cabin without using external at- mospheric air. Such a regenerative-type pres- sure cabin would be similar to a "sealed cabin" which is still under development in the United States. Soviet pilots appear to use forced breathing techniques and probably acquire increased al- titude tolerance by acclimatization training. This is supported by the observation that pres- sure and altitude suits are in use, not only for emergency situations, but also for longer periods of time at extreme altitudes. High pressure breathing and protection suits which are used in the United States, however, are generally considered only as emergency equip- ment. Theoretical Research - Oxygen deprivation at high altitudes is of urgent interest in the USSR. In the field of protein biochemistry, the Soviet scientists have been studying the cytochrome enzyme system which is an es- sential means of oxygen activation in cellular respiration. Preconditioning - The most outstanding feature of the Soviet space medical program is perhaps the degree to which space animals are preconditioned. It is quite possible that the vestibular apparatus of the Sputnik test dog was altered or modified by surgery or drugs prior to its prolonged space flight in order to study the positioning sense of the animal through other sensory organs. Since the vestibular apparatus is responsible for signaling the position of the body in space, disruption of this apparatus could provide significant data for future studies on the prob- lems of weightlessness. In the past, Soviet scientists have meticulously followed pre- scribed regimens of compensating for altered position sense by adapting test animals to new types of coordinations and by conditioning animals to other orienting senses, such as sight and touch. Presumably if an animal could be oriented through use of sight and touch without vestibular orientation, it would not have much difficulty in a weightless state and would not be subject to motion sickness and accompanying digestive and circulatory disturbances. However, this technique of altered responses cannot be extrapolated di- rectly to humans. Further research along these lines is undoubtedly in progress. Superclean Environments -Soviet research on supercleanliness is only of peripheral medi- cal interest, but it is a primary factor in the fabrication of high precision components ranging from the assembly of ballbearings for highly-sensitive, superprecise instruments to the assembly of floating gyros and accelerom- eters in inertial navigation components. Superclean conditions are necessitated by the fact that extremely minute particles of dust or airborne micro-organisms can cause a seri- ous error in the accuracy of such equipment. The Soviets appreciate the importance of supercleanliness and have worked out the the- oretical aspects of contamination, even in very small particle-size ranges. Furthermore, they have developed air-monitoring devices which are claimed to be more than adequate for detecting particles of a size tolerated in the 8 assembly of Western superprecision compo- nents. Data on actual conditions in pertinent industrial enterprises is lacking, as is definite proof that Soviet concern with superclean- liness includes problems relating to superpre- cision assembly. The Soviets, however, have developed some equipment which is suitable for maintaining superclean conditions, and their standards are comparable to those pre- scribed in the West. The development of some of this equipment is connected with the So- viet nuclear energy program. As early as 1953, the Soviets published articles on nuclear research work rooms which had rounded points of intersection between walls, floors, and ceilings and the partitions were made of non-porous material, such as vinyl plastic, to minimize contaminations. These specifica- tions are comparable to those of the West. Although the Soviets had pointed out that adequate air filtration apparatus is necessary, information on technical specifications of So- viet air filters is incomplete. Estimate, 1967 Exclusive of material achievements, the ac- celerated status of Soviet exploratory research in aeromedicine and space medicine, through 1967, will result in an increased understand- ing of the fundamental mechanisms that un- derlie human performance and behavior in space and will encompass the broad range of space environments and space equivalent con- ditions in civilian and military operations. Soviet researchers will intensify their obser- vations on biological effects of radiation, arti- ficial environment, orientation in space, op- tical factors, gravity zero, and temperature and pressure tolerances. During the next few years, the Soviets will continue to use animals for extremely high altitude research purposes, employing pri- mates such as monkeys and chimpanzees. There is no aeromedical obstacle, other than a possible reluctance to take a calculated risk, to prevent them from orbiting a human being for a period of hours to days within the next year. Such a feat would depend on perfection of an ejectable "sealed capsule" for re-entry and/or re-ignition of non-expended fuel for re-entry of a manned rocket. As a result of interpretation of physiological data telemetered from extremely high alti- tudes, the Soviets will overcome, within the next two years, many of the major theoreti- cal gaps which exist in the understanding of animal and human physiological reactions to space hazards. Through 1967, it is expected that the Soviet Union will modify animal and human re- sponses so that space travelers may adapt themselves to extended or temporary intoler- able conditions, such as might occur during launching, orbital flight, and re-entry. Within the ten year period, the USSR will make significant advances in establishing the effects of physical factors (temperature, mo- tion of the air, atmospheric and barometric pressure, radiation, ionization of air, etc.) on biological systems. The Soviets will continue to propagandize achievements in space medicine in their psy- chological warfare effort against the West through 1967. Military Implications The USSR is currently (1957) training mili- tary airmen to withstand the adverse condi- tions which they may meet in space flight. A member of the Soviet delegation to the Eighth International Astronautical Congress, held during August 1957 in Barcelona, Spain, pointed out that Soviet studies on the effects of space travel on human beings already are far advanced. These studies, simulating ex- tremely high altitude conditions, were devised following the study of space explorations us- ing animal subjects. Scientists of the USSR and other countries now have confirmation of theories that living creatures can survive in space for extended periods. Through 1967, consolidation of space re- search programs in the Soviet Union will in- clude the military medical sciences, giving re- searchers new substantive ways to attack old problems and new opportunities for experi- ments in environments, such as a near-per- fect vacuum, intense solar exposure, or bom- bardments by cosmic and other radiations. Problems of major military significance in space medicine will continue to be attacked 9 with considerable success by Soviet scientists. The degree to which this will aid them mili- tarily will depend largely on technological ad- vances in rocketry and the development of new weapons systems. The Soviets have the capability to apply the principles of space medicine to these new systems. CONTROL OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR The Nervous System: Regulation of the Organism A discussion of Soviet physiological con- cepts requires the frequent use of the terms neurophysiology and neuropathology. The broader Soviet concept of neurophysiology includes psychology, especially association, whether the association arises from actions, impressions, words, or thoughts. Soviet neu- ropathology is concerned with the study of malfunction caused by any mechanism which disturbs analysis or synthesis of the unity of subjective or objective behavior or the loss of adaptation to the total environment. Objectives - Soviet materialistic philosophy readily adheres to the principle that there is a demonstrable physical explanation for com- plex physiological and psychological functions called human behavior. Human behavior is thus regarded essentially as a conditioned re- flex resulting from contact between the living organism and its internal and external en- vironment. Soviet physiologists theorize that the cerebral cortex is the master mechanism for controlling both internal and external be- havior. Research objectives are designed to prove this theory and to further determine the physical linkage between behavior and the body. Current Trends - The Soviets design their experimental work in neurophysiology on the principles laid down by Sechenov and Pavlov. Conditioning techniques are used widely to study behavior mechanisms under controlled laboratory conditions.. Experimental environ- ments are impressed on the sensory organs and the resultant behavior is. quantitatively measured. Conditioning is used experimen- tally to induce internal and external sensory linkage on a predetermined basis to predict behavior. The functional "receptivity" of the central nervous system is one great variable in such research, which, according to the So- viets, responds to modification within limits. An important trend in their research is to determine the limits within which compli- cated physiological reactions, such as the total personality of the experimental subject, may be molded. Experimental work on environ- mental changes has shown that alterations in the excitation, inhibition, or delay in the response of the higher centers result in limited reactivity which is amenable to quantitative and qualitative measurement. The Soviets are thus opening the whole field of behavior to conditioning methodology, from which they anticipate demonstrable response with reason- able predictability. Comparative Trends, U.S.-USSR - U.S.- USSR trends in all phases of physiological re- search show some measure of parallelism. In the available Soviet literature, it is difficult to perceive any lack of understanding or ap- preciation of recent Western advances, but there is a difference in scientific focus. In the West, physiology is advanced primarily ac- cording to academic interests whereas in the Soviet sphere physiological research appears to be centered on an intensive search for a method for controlling human behavior. The advances in sensory physiology and psychology are predominantly in the posses- sion of the Soviets, and they have established approaches to the organic aspects of behavior analysis and control which are not appreci- ated in the West. The mastery .of the cortical influence over both external and internal behavior has not been investigated in the West with the in- tensity, zeal, or thoroughness that it has in Russia. The West recognizes the association of sensory impulses from exteroceptive and interoceptive receptors at higher nervous levels. (This is the hypothesis of psychoso- matic medicine.) The observations which the West has gathered on visceral stimulation have indicated that they are largely of uncon- ditioned character. The conditioning of vis- cero-visceral or visceral-somatic reflexes has received only minimal attention in the West. The Soviets regard conditioning as the only method for learning, while the United States views conditioning as one of several methods. This tends to minimize U.S. efforts to analyze experimental possibilities in the conditioning technique.. External or exteroceptive condi- tioning is well understood the world over, but the appreciation of interoceptive conditioning and the advances in this area are distinctly Soviet. This type of investigation in Soviet hands has shown its importance in the modifi- cation of external or somatic reflexes by de- liberate manipulation of the internal environ- ment and emphasizes a facility for emotional excitation which is a potent source for per- sonality alteration. Estimate, 1967 -Personality Analysis and Manipulation -The effectiveness of subaudi- tory stimulation on perception has been dem- onstrated and recently has been applied ex- perimentally. This method will be studied by the Soviets in an attempt to assess its value for training the population or for its prop- aganda value. Irradiation techniques will be developed to leucotomize ("lobotomize") local and specific brain areas. These effects will be reversible or non-reversible depending upon focalization, duration of application, and dosage. The technique will be relatively simple, bloodless, and without mechanical trauma and has def- inite applications in altering personality. Electrodes implanted in specific cortical and sub-cortical areas produce, upon stimulation, abnormal behavior in laboratory animals. This technique will be used in humans for the purpose of reducing hysterias or psychotic behavior. The electrode will be wireless and activated by high frequency induction from outside the skull. Anxiety states will be treated by specific conditioning of visceral receptors. A num- ber of experimental conditions which utilize this type of conditioning will be published. In addition, anxiety states will be created by pertinent external stimuli. The observations growing out of the visceral influence on personality will be advanced to the point of showing new approaches to diag- nosis and treatment. The Soviets will attempt to demonstrate the mastery of cortical control over visceral econ- omy. This will include the direct and indi- rect control of the endocrine glands. Spe- cific integrating mechanisms within cortical and sub-cortical centers which regulate vis- cero-somatic and somatic-visceral condition- ing will be described. The 'Soviets consider this type of research essential for understand- ing all facets of personality. The cardiovascular, respiratory, hematopoi- etic, and excretory systems are susceptible to conditioning. By specific conditioning, the individual will be better trained and adaptable to handle stresses imposed by industry, space travel, and physical training. Conditioning "peaks," which may appear years or even hours after birth, have been recognized in children. Childhood training will be modified so as to make the best use of these "peaks," thereby enabling the Soviets to introduce more advanced educational train- ing at an earlier age. Anatomical and Neurochemical Advances- The histological study of sense organs, espe- cially interoceptors, will be markedly ad- vanced. These studies will confirm the pres- ence of polyvalent receptors in brain tissue and will lead to new and more reasonable concepts for blood flow control within the brain. Radioisotopes are being employed for a bet- ter understanding of neurochemistry and neuropharmacology in health and disease. Marked advances will show the nature of the processes of excitation and, more particular- ly, inhibition. Cortical inhibition is so im- portant to the Soviet concept of cortical ac- tion that an all out effort will be made to un- derstand it by both metabolic and electro- physiological techniques. Inhibition is one of the most poorly understood functions of the nervous system in worldwide neurophysi- ology. Conditioned reflex pathways within the cerebral sub-cortex and cortical structures will be demonstrated and anatomically localized. C T- AL 11 Military Implications - Soviet animal and human experiments have established that neuroses and other psychological (neuro- pathological) conditions can be created which cause predictable behavioral changes. We be- lieve that they are attempting to translate these laboratory findings into methods for controlling human behavior. Defensive Considerations - Advancing So- viet knowledge in the fields of physiological conditioning and physiological psychology may be applied to the direction and control of military and civil defense efforts and to social and political aims. Increased emphasis on supervised and controlled training programs can be expected to afford greater stability to the Soviet population in the event of war. Offensive Considerations - Soviet psycho- logical warfare reflects good psychophysio- logical techniques. The application of these techniques can be more clearly understood and appreciated through observation of their biological research. The Soviets will intensify the scope of their efforts in creating confu- sion, suspicion, and misunderstanding among foreign powers through speeches, interna- tional actions, and the veto; which in physi- ological terms represent unconditioning stim- uli. Soviet successes in mass unconditioning can be measured by the degree of anxiety which is displayed periodically by large seg- ments of the Western world. Soviet psycho- logical strategy will incorporate recondition- ing methods when they feel that anxiety and tension in the non-Communist world permits subtle modifications of Western ideology in the direction of Communism. For the im- mediate future, unconditioning techniques, manifested by states of anxiety and tension, will continue to be the fundamental weapons used in their psychological strategy. Physiology and Pathology of Higher Nervous Activity Objectives - Physiology - The objective of Soviet neurophysiology is to prove that higher centers are the sole interpreters of all external and internal environmental stimuli; there- fore, changes in the environment become con- ditioning stimuli. The living organism must reach equilibrium with its environment to sur- vive even in a complex changing environment. This is accomplished through physiological adaptation under the direction of higher nervous centers. Pathology - The objective of Soviet neuro- pathology is to prove that functional abnor- malities are induced by "overload" or "colli- sion" of cortical processes. It is claimed that practical demonstrations have been made ex- perimentally in both man and animals with weak or with strong but unbalanced nervous systems.* Current Trends - Physiology - The most recent neurological techniques used in the West are also used by the Soviets with equal facility and understanding. Research em- phasis in Soviet physiology is on condition- ing, cerebral blood flow, neurochemistry, and neuropharmacology. Neurophysiology is also being applied to special industrial training and educational methods in the USSR. Pathology - Extensive use is being made of the techniques developed for inducing mental aberrations. Abnormal conditioning has been effective in the development of anx- ieties, neuroses, and hysterias. The tech- niques for doing this incorporate excessive stimulation, prolonged monotony, inhibitory conditioning, conversion of inhibition into ex- citation, and the interference of antagonistic reflexes or "collision." Intensive unconditioning and recondition- ing is being used on neurotic and psychotic patients. Practice of strong positive condi- tioning in individual and group training, as a primitive measure, is being developed as a standard technique. Comparative Trends, U.S.-USSR - Physi- ology - The Soviets are continuing. to explore every facet of the conditioning technique, both academically and from the standpoint of practical application. At present, U.S. sci- entists are quite uninterested in this area. The Soviets are continuing to emphasize an- * According to Soviet terminology, the weak nervous system is not readily influenced by condi- tioning, while the strong nervous system is amena- ble to rapid and decisive conditioning. alysis of environmental stimuli more than are U.S. scientists. Animal and human ecology is of great interest to Soviet physiologists but is receiving little attention by their U.S. counterparts. The trends in electrophysiology and neurochemistry are similar in both countries. Pathology - Abnormal conditioning and unconditioning is increasing in Soviet usage. The United States is doing little in this area as an approach to functional pathological be- havior. The United States is stronger in ana- lytic techniques which are frowned on by the USSR. The West has the advantage of more experience with shock treatment and brain surgery in the treatment of mental and nerv- ous diseases. Estimate, 1967-Physiology - Understand- ing of local and general factors which regu- late cerebral circulation will be substantially advanced. The Soviets have developed one of the most promising leads in this area; namely, brain chemoreceptors which are responsive to slight changes in blood chemistry. Great advancement will be made in the un- derstanding of cerebral inhibition through in- hibitory conditioning, enzyme chemistry, and neuropharmacology. Major advances will be made in the identi- fication of receptor organs which regulate the metabolism of the brain directly. There will be advances in the concepts of "overloading" and "collision" in cortical physiology and pathology. These advances will provide a clearer understanding of the functional mechanisms which are responsible for better or poorer transmission of nerve im- pulses in the higher brain centers. Pathology - The causation and treatment of certain neuroses by conditioning, uncondi- tioning, and reconditioning will be accom- plished. It will be shown that suitable electrical stimulation of the brain, in conjunction with conditioning, will facilitate the production and/or treatment of abnormal brain function. Radiation illness will be shown to involve the nervous system to a greater extent than is now believed. Radiation illness will be found to be due partially to the alteration in the flow of nerve impulses into the higher centers. It will be shown that functional neuro- pathology is perpetuated by abnormal visceral reflex activity once it has become established, although visceral conditioned reflexes have been shown to be slow to form and resistant to the methods known for extinction. There will be advances in the understand- ing of cerebral vascular control, from the physiological and pathological standpoints. There will be advances in the use of high- frequency induction, strong electromagnetic fields, and the use of anodal electronic cur- rents in cerebral areas to facilitate local and general inhibition, anesthesia, and alterations in vascularity. Clinical Aspects of Human Behavior Psychiatry is considered less important than neurology in the Soviet Union. Soviet psychiatrists state that their methods of treat- ment are based on Pavlovian ideas, but they employ almost all modern methods of treat- ment, with slight variations. Until recently, psychiatric research on reflexes and condi- tioning capabilities of mental patients has been their major interest. None of this work has significantly clarified the understanding of human behavior nor has it been of any par- ticular clinical value. Recently, Soviet inves- tigators in the fields of psychiatry and neu- rophysiology have been permitted more lati- tude in research. Pavlovian concepts of con- ditioned reflexes are now being supplemented clinically by incorporating ideas of feed-back, cerebral modulation of sensory input, and the information theory (cybernetics) as described by Wiener. By 1967, Soviet neurophysiologists will make significant clinical advances in clarify- ing the nature and causation of mental dis- ease. The results of their neurophysiological and neuropathological research will not re- duce human behavior to a simple mathe- matical equation or to an electronic circuit which can be altered by varying the input or changing connections. The Soviets appear to understand the unconscious and conscious 13 forces that motivate groups and nations al- though they deny Western psychoanalytic theories of behavior. NUCLEAR MEDICINE Objectives Radiobiology - Soviet objectives in radio- biology are: to provide substances for the prevention and therapy of radiation injury, to study the pathogenesis of radiation sick- ness and to relate changes of immunological. processes to pathogenesis, to determine the cancerigenic role .of ionizing radiation in tu- mor development, to intensify work in radia- tion genetics and the biophysical aspects of radiation biology, and to apply radiobiology to an understanding of fundamental prob- lems of living systems. Radiotherapeutics - Soviet objectives in radiotherapeutics are: to perfect radiothera- peutic techniques, to avoid excessive expo- sures to radiation of human beings in the reproductive ages and of developing embryos, to study the effects of small doses of internal and external ionizing radiation, to study the facilitation of excretion of internally deposited radioisotopes, and to develop the production and medical use of radioisotopes. Current Trends After the 1955 Geneva Conference on Peace- ful Uses of Atomic Energy, the Soviets ad- mitted they were rather far behind in the de- velopment of radiobiology. Thus, the 1956- 60 AMS Five Year Plan emphasizes the above objectives. In 1957, the Soviets established a new institute known as the Institute of Radi- ation and Physico-Chemical Biology, in the Department of Biological Sciences, Academy of Sciences, USSR, headed by the world re- nowned biochemist, V. A. Engel'gardt. This Institute is primarily concerned with studies on radiation genetics and on the mechanism of action of ionizing radiation on the living organism. Soviet investigations include most areas be- ing emphasized by Western scientists. The use of radioisotopes for diagnosis and therapy is increasing rapidly. Although some Soviet therapeutic claims have been exaggerated, it is apparent that they use most of the forms of radiotherapy available in the West. Work on methods and instrumentation occasionally shows new ideas. The infrared light-diffrac- tion red blood cell size determination method, for example, has interesting possibilities in detection of radiation damage. Their radio- biology research strongly emphasizes radia- tion effects on the central nervous system but is currently expanding to include research projects on other fields under' study in other countries. ''Comparative Trends, U.S.-USSR The quantity of Soviet research on the use of radioisotopes for diagnosis and therapy is now approximately on a level with 1949-52 U.S. efforts. The quality tends to be some- what better than similar 1949-52 U.S. work, because the Soviets are able to use results of Western work as a starting point. Soviet diagnostic and therapeutic methods, however, are not on a par with those of the United States, probably as a result of inadequate application of their medical research and de- velopment. Soviet scientists are giving more emphasis than Western scientists to the re-. sponse of the central nervous system to local and general irradiation. A major point of de- parture from Western research is Soviet work on the effect of radiation on the nervous sys- tem and its importance in future radiobiologi- cal studies. Soviet irradiation studies on mi- croorganisms have been described by Western observers as at least equal to current U.S. work. In other aspects, however, their re- search is 3-5 years behind that of the West. ,/Estimate, 1967 By 1967, the Soviets will have extended their radiobiological program to include most areas presently considered important from a research standpoint. Their work will be of much higher quality and, although many of the same problems will be under attack, the Soviet approach will become more sophisti- cated and will be directed toward more basic understanding of physical-biological proc- esses. No significant advances are anticipated except possibly in the use of radiobiological techniques for localization and precise manip- 14 C, aZ4PHNT+AL-- ulation of specific functions and segments of the central nervous system. It is expected that the USSR will be ahead of the United States in radiobiological research on the nerv- ous system, and possibly will also lead in the effects of cosmic radiation on organisms. The USSR will lag slightly behind the United States in the general field of radiobiology and in the use of radioisotopes for diagnosis and therapy. Military Implications By 1967, the Soviets will not have developed a method for the prevention or therapy of radiation injury, which can be applied to civil defense against nuclear warfare attack. Objectives The prime objective of all health physics organizations is the minimization of human exposure to ionizing radiation. Ancillary to this goal are the following tasks: develop- ment of administrative and procedural con- trols for workers in industries which have radiation hazards, provisions for shielding and protective clothing, adequate working space ventilation, personnel dosimetry, work- ing space dosimetry, worker education, early detection of personnel exposure to radiation, prophylactic chemicals, and therapy for ab- sorbed radioisotopes or for ionizing radiation. Current Trends Although the USSR officially subscribes to a policy of maximum permissible radiation exposure which is at least as low as that of the United States, the Soviets are lax in the application of rigid radiation health stand- ards in their nuclear energy research and operations. The United States prescribes a maximum exposure of approximately 0.1 rem/6-day week. The provisions for person- nel .protection in one of the Soviet atomic power plants observed by Western visitors are completely inadequate by U.S. standards. The shielding of therapeutic radiation devices also is insufficient to permit operating per- sonnel to work an 8-hour day. Present Soviet information on the relative biological effectiveness of different types of radiation for injuring living tissue is based on Western literature published from 5 to 8 years ago. A few of the more advanced So- viet workers are aware of 1956-57 U.S. re- search in this area. Soviet principles for establishing maximum permissible concen- tration of radiation appear to be the same as those used in the United States. Routine So- viet medical examinations for workers who are exposed to radiation emphasize neurological examination but are otherwise similar to those used in the United States. Comparative Trends, U.S.-USSR From the theoretical standpoint, the So- viets are aware of current Western trends and practices, although they have contributed nothing original in health physics. Soviet practice of personnel protection apparently is inferior to that in the United States; the So- viets rely on practices unacceptable to the West. Estimate, 1967 The Soviets will maintain close surveillance of U.S. and other Western advances in health physics. In. international meetings they will subscribe to the greatest possible avoidance of exposure to radiation. However, the Soviets will, on a practical level, subordinate health physics practices to the development of their nuclear energy program and probably will not provide any significant advances in health physics by 1967. Military Implications (See Radiobiology) INFECTIOUS DISEASE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT Objectives The underlying motivation for Soviet re- search on infectious disease is to reduce the worktime lost to the national economy be- cause of debilitation and illness. Thus, al- most all medical microbiological research and development, planning, and budgeting is ?con- CON IDENW A T 15 saa xrr~ centrated on those infectious diseases which directly or indirectly cause losses in labor potential. There have been few significant changes in the past 10 years in Soviet research and de- velopment related to infectious diseases. So- viet efforts are concerned mainly with the development of new and improved vaccines, serums, antibiotics, and chemotherapeutic agents; the collection of data necessary for epidemiologic intelligence; and evaluation studies concerned with the efficacy of avail- able diagnostic, preventive, and therapeutic biologicals and clinical procedures. Basic re- search in medical ,microbiology is insignifi- cant when compared with developmental ef- forts. In descending order of emphasis, the key Soviet medical microbiological research and development efforts pertain to bacillary dys- entery, influenza, brucellosis, poliomyelitis, tuberculosis, childhood infectious diseases, the encephalitides, tularemia, the hemor- rhagic, fevers, plague, and Q fever. Investiga- tions of other important diseases receive modest support. In recent years, desultory efforts have been put on glanders and melioidosis, sandfly fever, mycotic infections, infectious mononucleosis, and dengue and yel- low fever. The USSR maintains some active research and development interest in almost every dis- ease of international importance and Soviet scientists are highly knowledgeable concern- ing several diseases of worldwide interest, such as brucellosis, tularemia, and the en- cephalitides. There is considerable responsible microbi- ological investigation in the USSR which is influenced by a growing nucleus of able men. Concentration of resources and personnel has resulted in abatement andjor control of ma- jor outbreaks of diseases, such as typhus, cholera, plague, and smallpox, which sapped the Russian economy before 1930. At present, USSR development and mass application of live vaccines (such as those used 'for influenza, Spring/Summer enceph- alitis, brucellosis, tularemia, tuberculosis, and plague) , in combination with awide- spread vector control program where applica- ble, are used to temporize .the continuing problems resulting from insufficient sanitary hygiene practices and services. The net pro- tective effect of mass immunization with live vaccines is limited by poorly evaluated vac- cine trials and inept epidemiological analyses. Comparative Trends, U.S.-USSR Related Sciences -Soviet efforts in basic disciplines underlying the study of infectious diseases are generally inferior to those of the United States. The best Soviet ideas and work are sometimes comparable to U.S. studies but there is a relatively low volume of such work in the USSR. Basic medical microbiological research is al- most completely dependent on open Western sources, although- certain information from USSR workers is of great interest to U.S. in- vestigators. Specific Disease Studies -Wherever USSR investigators are expending quantitatively greater efforts than U.S. workers, such as in the fields of bacillary dysentery, the zoonoses, and childhood .infections,. it reflects inade- quate Soviet application of known environ- mental sanitary measures. Concentration of about 80 percent of Soviet viral research and development on influenza has resulted in a USSR program which only in recent years can be called similar to the U.S. effort. The 1955-57 Soviet purchase of U.S. and Canadian equipment and the ex- change of medical virologists only recently made feasible a significant USSR polio- myelitis research, development, and vaccine production program. The only examples where USSR investigators have had more ex- perience than their U.S. counterparts are their work with exotic diseases, such as atypical encephalitides and hemorrhagic fevers, the trend towards more emphasis on rickettsial studies, and the study of medical entomology. Even in these areas, Soviet investigators have not produced any biologicals, methods, or the- ories which are superior to those available in the United States. 16 Prevention and Control -The Soviet pre- ventive medicine program is centrally con- trolled. Prominent authorities are assigned to infectious disease commissions and epi- demiological survey teams in order to collect and collate information coincident to labora- tory research. Soviet investigators and pub- lic health officials make some use of every U.S. diagnostic, preventive, and therapeutic tool applicable to human infectious diseases. Nevertheless, the lack of uniform application of environmental sanitation measures, the high incidence of occupational diseases, the existence of sizably populated yet underde- veloped areas, and the presence of a number of semiprimitive indigenous popula- tion groups, place the USSR public health system at a serious disadvantage. Although public health services are far from ideal, they are usually available to all population groups. Clinical laboratory support as practiced in the United States is practically non-existent in the USSR. Projects such as the zoonoses and influenza control programs vary in qual- ity and quantity. Despite large-scale efforts, influenza is responsible for loss of 7 to 21 working days per man-year. As many as 4 million Soviet meat and dairy industry work- ers may lose an average of 30 work days per man year from brucellosis. Annual losses total many millions of dollars for these two infectious diseases alone. Military Aspects -Specific military re- search and development projects at the Sci- entific Research Institute of Epidemiology and .Hygiene of the Military Ser'~ices, Kirov (NIIEG VS) and the Military Medical Acad- emy imeni Kirov, Leningrad (MMAK) play a small but important role in the study of infec- tious diseases. A number of closely coordi- nated interagency medical committees serve both the civilian and military communities. Most leading USSR medical research person- alities have military affiliation. In the USSR, the study and control of in- fectious diseases of military importance have two basic functions: (1) protection and treat- ment of troops, and (2) a program for mili- tary and civil defense against biological war-. fare agents. A relatively small part of the total military and civilian medical research and development effort is intended for BW defense. As of 1957, Soviet BW development efforts are largely concerned with immuniza- tion, pathogen air sampling, experimental epidemiology, theory of aerosols, rapid detec- tion procedures, and- .studies on efficacy of various aerosol and surface decontamination methods. Soviet information has been heav- ily supplemented by World War II Japanese, German, and open published Western BW data. Research and development on bacterial zoonoses appear to have been emphasized in the past. However, recent (1956-57) studies on influenza virus- aerosols and air sampling (by investigators now working at the Insti- tute of Virology, Moscow) are applicable to BW research and development, and indicate their increasing interest in the viral and rickettsia) field. Although Soviet authorities have been cog- nizant of the military weapons system possi- bilities of pathogens for over 20 years, current efforts appear to be largely motivated by the need for preparation against weapons which may result from the considerable U.S. BW effort. Soviet materiel required for. medical defense against pathogenic aerosols are com- parable to, and have limitations similar to, those of U.S. equipment. Soviet equipment applicable to BW research and development is usually less complex and often crude in comparison with similar U.S. apparatus. In- fectious disease studies of special human BW significance follow the U.S. pattern but lack the complexity, engineering, and concentra- tion associated with U.S. BW efforts. The USSR BW defense effort relies on the .utilization of available personnel for military and civil defense plans, training, and organi- zation. In the USSR, both the military and civil sanitary epidemic systems have the ma- jor responsibility during and after a BW at- tack. All medical laboratories and personnel have a detection and identification mission, and the available zoonose vaccines have been specifically authorized for immunization of civilians and troops when BW attack is ex- pected. 17 !`~lIATL~TTIL~TTTT A T Estimate, 1967 Research -Research on bacterial diseases will be substantially deemphasized in favor of concentration on the viral and rickettsia) diseases. There will be greater and better quality biochemical and biophysical support. More medical microbiological research will be basic and specific infectious disease research will decrease substantially. There will be a large effort in the field of physiological stress related to both infectious and non-infectious diseases. New information on the mechanisms of immunity and infection may result in this area, but significant advances on the nature of antigen and antibody will more likely be derived from Western work. Soviet studies of potential broad spectrum antigens will prob- ably provide them with a capability in im- munochemistry and related fields which should be sufficient for possible characterisa- tion of antigens giving simultaneous protec- tion against a number of infections. Development -The development and re- finement of live attenuated vaccines for zoonoses, influenza, and the spotted fever group will continue for the next 5 to 10 years. However, by 1967, the major emphasis will shift to development of purified antigens and/ or adaptation of Western vaccines. The re- finement of an orally-administered live, atten- uated polio vaccine will be an exception. Better chemotherapy and new or improved procedures for detection and isolation of mi- croorganisms could come from increased- So- viet emphasis on related biophysical and bio- chemical applications. It is more likely, how- ever, that most of these advances will result from Western investigations. Within -the next ten years, the important infectious disease research institutes will be modernized and well-equipped. Though fewer in number, all major, medical microbiological research, development, and production facili- ties will be comparable to similar U.S. facili- ties. The quality control of biologicals will be much improved, but these products will continue to be inferior to U.S. products. Many of the outmoded or poorly evaluated biologicals now on the USSR market will have been eliminated. Control of Infectious Diseases - By 1967, the centrally-controlled antiepidemic ap- proach now employed in the USSR will have been minimized in favor of improved local environmental .sanitation, such as potable water supply and adequate waste disposal facilities. The organizational structure of the Soviet infectious disease control system will result in a stronger regional research and sup- port laboratory system. Treatment of chronic stages of the infectious diseases will be em- phasized. A token force of a nation-wide antiepidemic network will be retained for pos- sible emergency situations. Military Implications In the next ten years, Soviet medical micro- biologists will continue to attack problems of serious public health significance.. Minor portions of this effort can be directly applied to BW. Unless investigators. accomplish de- liberate mass infection of man in a manner useful to a military commander, the USSR will do little more than orient paramilitary, civil defense, and military personnel on rou- tine measures for meeting a BW attack. Mass immunization, specifically as a defensive measure against potential BW agents, will not be attempted unless a BW. emergency is im- minent. Those medical services which are applicable to defense against BW will con- tinue to be maintained on a semi-alert basis. Antibiotic and chemotherapeutic stockpiles for epidemic emergencies will be available in areas of greatest military and industrial. im- portance. A network of air and fluid sam- pling stations in key areas will be in opera- tion and mass distribution of microorganism sampling equipment to key stations will be accomplished. Defense Against Nuclear Weapons Attack Objectives -Soviet objectives include the provision of adequate physical facilities to treat the largest possible number of persons injured in radiological. warfare (RW) ; the stockpiling of appropriate antibiotics, drugs, blood and plasma extenders, blood fractions, fluids for injection; dressings, and ancillary equipment, such as radiation detection me- ters and dosimeters; the provision of sufficient numbers of trained medical personnel; the training of the general population in proce- dures designed to minimize the number of persons injured as well as to assist the injured during and after attacks; and the minimiza- tion of the psychological vulnerability of the population to RW. Current Trends - In December 1956, So- viet DOSAAF, Red Cross, and Red Crescent committees were reported to have completed their task of educating the populace concern- ing antiatomic defense. Beginning 1 Janu- ary 1957 and continuing to 31 December 1958, the MPVO, with the assistance of the .above societies, is conducting a compulsory program of instruction for everyone above 16 years of age. This program consists of 22 hours of instruction and a test of the knowledge ac- quired on 14 themes for air, atomic, chemical, and bacteriological defense. There is ex- tensive published material available to sup- plement such training. The "USSR Training Manual For Local Antiair Defense" is one of the better and more complete publications. The number of medical personnel is rapidly nearing the point where future training will be able to emphasize quality rather than quantity. The emphasis on the medical as- pects of defense is an important facet of training for these medical workers. Production and stockpiling of equipment and pharmaceuticals for the defense program currently takes precedence over civilian con- sumption requirements. The capacity of the Soviet Union for pharmaceutical production is suil'icient to provide for stockpiling, plus a moderate amount of materials for current use: It is unlikely, however, that the Soviets are presently manufacturing sufficient radiation monitoring and protection devices to meet the needs of the atomic weapons program. It is doubtful therefore if enough such equip- ment is available for stockpiling and civilian consumption. Comparative Trends, U.S.-USSR -The So- viet Union is definitely ahead of the United States in psychological and medical civil de- fense training, but the United States is in a better position to treat a large number of patients due to the extensive geographical dis- tribution of many excellent medical centers. The United States is far ahead of the USSR in production capacity and stockpiling of pharmaceuticals and equipment. ~' Estimate,. 1967 - By 1967, most of the So- viet production, distribution, and stockpiling programs will have been completed. The So- viet population will continue to be more knowledgeable in defensive measures than the population of the United States. The Soviets will increase the quality of their medical per- sonnel training and of the care available in emergencies. There will be a greater number of good facilities for the care of mass casual- ties. Effective therapy for radiation injury probably will remain an unsolved problem, both in the United States and the USSR. Military Implications -The Soviets will continue to excel in training, control, and attitude of the population toward civil de- fense. It will be possible for the Soviet Union to equal any U.S. civil defense stockpiling effort by 1967. The current high level of U.S. medical practice, however, will partially offset the Soviet psychological lead during the early part of the 10 year period. The greater U.S. production and distribution of drugs, instru- ments, and other medical supplies will give the United States a slight advantage for about the first five of the next ten years. Defense Against CW Attack Objectives -Soviet objectives in the medi- cal aspects of CW defense are to provide per- sonnel with protective equipment, adequate and rapid medical treatment for CW injury, and adequate civil defense measures for train- ing and protecting the population against CW attack. Current Trends -Research on the physi- ological effects of CW agents and a search for effective counteragents are being emphasized. Civil defense posters are advising the populace where to seek shelter and what to do in the event of CW attack. Estimate, 1967 - By 1967, the- Soviets prob- ably will have developed improved shelters, personal equipment, and drugs of therapeutic 19 value for the treatment of CW casualties caused by conventional war gases and G- and V-agents. Stockpiling of important medical materiel will result in improved capabilities for defense against CW attack. Adequate amounts of drugs for the therapy of CW casualties and antibiotics for the pre- vention and treatment of secondary infections are expected to be available in the USSR by .1967. The USSR is expected to continue its cur- rent effort in the construction of underground shelters .to provide protection during a CW attack. Formation of well-indoctrinated cadres to care for CW casualties will be com- plete by 1967 and mandatory instruction of the general populace on the dangers of CW will continue during this period. Military Implications - At present, total Soviet medical defensive capabilities against CW attack do not exceed those of the United States. It is believed that the United States has a slightly greater medical defensive capa- bility against G- or V-agents due mainly to the greater U.S. logistic capability in support of medical defense. By 1967, the United States will have greater capability for the preventive and therapeutic treatment of CW casualties than the USSR. However, the possible Soviet discovery of new synthetic types of biological compounds from their efforts on the alteration and rearrange- went of toxic proteins may present a serious threat to the United States. Whole Blood, Plasma, and Plasma Extenders Objectives -Soviet objectives are to pre- pare and make available whole blood, plasma, and plasma extenders in amounts adequate for the treatment of burns, shock, radiation syndrome, and for use in pre- and post-opera- , tive care and for mass casualty supportive therapy. Current Trends -Current Soviet research is aimed at increasing the usable life of stored whole blood and the development of plasma volume expanders. Another trend, although currently on the decline, is the clinical use of animal blood plasma as a substitute for human blood. Soviet plasma volume ex- panders may be divided into two groups; the synthetic expanders, and the natural ex- panders which are prepared from animal tis- sue. Among the synthetic expanders are Polyglukin, Sinkol (glucose polymer type), and PVP (polyvinylpyrrolidone) . In general, these compounds have a high molecular weight, are colloidal in nature, and possess properties similar to human plasma. Among the natural expanders are BK-8 and LSB (earlier referred to as VNS), the latter being a species non-specific serum. Frozen blood, in the form of cylinders :inserted between the fractured ends of long bones, has been used successfully iri the rapid healing of such fractures. Comparative Trends, U.S.-USSR -The USSR and the United States are attempting to increase the usable life of stored whole blood. Soviet scientists are approaching this problem through the addition of chemical substances while U.S. workers are using low temperatures. Soviet claims of significant progress in this field have not been confirmed. Although U.S. research has been partially successful in extending the preservation of blood at low temperature, the method pres- ently is not industrially feasible because of the extremely high cost. The Soviets are also using low temperatures along with their own chemical additive techniques to preserve whale blood. A detailed manual on the technique of blood transfusion is now available to Soviet civil defense personnel. Estimate, 1967 - By 1967, it is expected that the storage of whole blood will have been extended beyond its currently accepted limits by the USSR and the United States. The effi- ciency and number of Soviet blood banks will have increased.. The Soviets will exert greater control over civilian blood donors, though donations will be at less frequent intervals. Recent Soviet research is directed at inacti- vating some of the enzymes associated with the breakdown of whole blood and is expected to be successful. This will result in extending the time of blood storage. In general, the USSR and the United States will probably be on a par in accomplishments in the field of whole blood, plasma, and plasma extenders. Military. Implications -The Soviets had considerable experience in blood collection during World War II, when logistic problems were solved by using basic materials in a crude but effective manner. Adequate amounts of whole blood are believed to be stockpiled for emergency usage. Dried plasma and plasma extenders are also available. By 1967, the Soviets will have perfected techniques for increasing the storage time of whole blood and for increasing the quality of plasma and plasma extenders. As a result, they will be able to provide more adequate care for the military services who require whole blood or plasma extenders for the treat- ment of burns, shock, and trauma. The distribution and utilization of blood and plasma extenders are closely allied to priority military requirements in the USSR. The ready availability of these products is a distinct advantage in Soviet medical defense. New Antibiotics and Drugs Objectives -Soviet objectives are to in- crease drug production and distribution; to develop new and better native drugs for re- placement of imported drugs; to stimulate re- search on new antibiotics for viral diseases, cancer, tuberculosis, and diseases resistant to presently used antibiotics; and to search for drugs useful in defense against chemical, atomic, and bacteriological warfare. Current Trends -Soviet pharmacological and pharmaceutical research includes: inves- tigations into more effective analgesics which are sufficiently safe to permit use in full-scale warfare, better treatment for burn therapy, antibiotics for common as well as exotic dis- eases, prophylaxis against chemical and .radiological agents, and therapeutic and de- contaminating compounds for these same agents. The Soviet definition of an antibiotic is much broader than that of the United States and includes such materials as tissue extracts, The section on pharmaceutical research in Monograph VII, .Chemistry, provides data on So- viet pharmaceutical capabilities. serum derivatives, enzymes, and proteins. As a result, research in this field includes work on bacteria, yeast, fungi, protozoa, and plant and animal tissue. Among the newer (1957) antibiotics available are Penicillin V and Bi- cillin, both of which are identical to the U.S. compounds. Other antibiotics which were developed earlier include Ekmonovocillin, Colimycin, and Bin-chaga, the latter being prescribed as a cure for cancer, ulcers, and gastritis. In general, however, only limited success has been obtained in the development of mycin-type antibiotics. Comparative Trends, U.S.-USSR -The ma- jor portion of Soviet pharmaceutical research. reflects a continued exploitation of U.S. and other Western developments. Many foreign drugs are adopted, renamed, and produced by the Soviets to avoid importation. Soviet pharmacology, particularly neuropharma- cology, has some lines of .original research, but it generally lags 5 years behind that of the United States. In the .last 2 years the Soviets have begun to close this research gap but they will not approach the position of the United States for many years. Estimate, 1967 -The Soviet research effort on antibiotics will become mare original but continued emphasis will be placed on the ex- ploitation of Western developments. The U.S. will probably retain a clear lead in research, development, and application of antibiotics. It is unlikely that a significant scientific advance will result from current Soviet anti- biotic research. The Soviets hope to develop antiviral and anticancer antibiotics but they are not neglecting the potentialities of the chemical approach to these problems. POLAR MEDICAL RESEARCH Objectives Soviet objectives are to determine how best to utilize polar nutritional resources and how best to avoid the attendant special health hazards. Current Trends The present lines of research include studies on special polar meteorological conditions and their impact on human beings, and !'+l1T~TL~TTIL+TTTT A T Z 1 studies on cold injury, clothing, nutrition, sanitation, and disease vectors. Comparative Trends, U.S.-USSR The USSR is definitely behind the United States in theoretical aspects of the patho- genesis of cold injury. The two countries are nearly on a par in therapy of cold injury. The Soviet rapid rewarming technique and the use of ultra-high frequency ("super" dia- thermy) are unusual aspects of Soviet- ther- apy. Such techniques are not currently in use in the United States. A facet of Soviet preventive practice is the emphasis on cold "conditioning." U.S. scientists are opposed to this type of exposure to cold. Estimate, 1967 By 1967, the Soviets will have achieved suf- ficient experience in polar medicine so that current problems will be reduced to preven- tion of cold injury. No major scientific. ad- vances are necessary for such progress. It does not seem likely that the Soviets will make major advances in understanding .the patho- genesis of cold injury. The Soviets probably will be on par with the United States from a practical applied standpoint. 1Vlilitary Implications At the present time, the USSR is just as capable as the United States in polar military maneuvers from the medical viewpoint. The Soviets will probably maintain this position through 1967. Objectives Soviet objectives include improving nutri- tional standards fox athletes and school-age children; improving therapeutic nutrition programs in hospitals; establishing nutri- tional requirements in polar and subtropical regions; establishing living and nutritional requirements of industrial employees who work with nuclear energy and radioactive sub- , stances; increasing studies on avitamin-oses which result from the use of antibiotics; de- termining the effect of heat-processing on nu- tritional values of food; developing of special rations; understanding the relation between dietary intake and disease; providing more adequate distribution of milk and dairy prod- ucts; and improving quality controls on vita- min and hormone preparations. Soviet emphasis is on the use of therapeutic diets for patients. Studies on the effect of vitamins on higher nervous ~ activity are in progress but no significant data have been reported. _The search for new sources of dietary essentials is increasing. Animal ex- periments, where used, are not statistically valid and experimental designs are generally poor. The Soviets have only token representation at international meetings on nutrition and there is virtually no participation. Large- scale nutritional surveys, such as those which are carried out by the United States, are not being made. Soviet nutritional research is similar to Western work of more than a decade ago. The greatest Soviet problems are not in nu- tritional research but are generally in basic fields of food technology such as growing, harvesting, preserving, marketing, and dis- tribution of food products. Estimate, 1967 By 1967, the USSR will make few advances in the applied aspects of nutrition over those achieved in 1957; advances in .basic research are more probable. New sources of vitamins will be found in indigenous plants but these will be exploited primarily for their propa- ganda value. The Soviets will devote some effort to training additional scientific person- neI in the field of nutrition. There is presently little indication that the Soviets will incorporate- into their military. services a nutritional program comparable to that of the. United States. The Soviets will probably not make any advances of major im- portance in the field of nutrition within the period of this estimate; they will continue to depend primarily on Western advances. BASIC PROTEIN RESEARCH Objectives Soviet objectives in the. field of protein re- search are to determine the amino acid com- position of tissue, the sequence of.amino acids in various protein molecules, the portion of the protein molecule which is biologically active, the shape and dimension of protein molecules, the properties and mechanism of action of hormones of protein nature, and the properties of specific pure antigens and anti- bodies. The isolation of toxins is also an objective. In addition, the in vivo and in vitro synthesis of proteins is one of the most im- portant objectives. Current Trends The. Soviets are emphasizing studies of the protein and amino acid composition of im- portant organisms causing diseases such as .cholera, typhoid, diptheria, and brucellosis in. order to determine whether a relation exists between pathogenicity and the nature of amino acid content. They are also attempt- ing to reconstitute partially-denatured pro- teins for the purpose of duplicating the struc- ture of living tissue. There is emphasis also on the use of radioisotopes for study of the role of proteins in the normal and diseased organism. Comparative Trends, U.S.-USSR Research on the composition and properties of new proteins is similar in scope in both the USSR and the United States. Some Soviet research on the protein and amino acid com- position of bacteria may have future applica- tions to BW or CW. Little Soviet effort seems to be directed toward the nutritional aspects of proteins and amino acids while consider- able U.S. effort is being expended in this di- rection. Soviet research in immunochemistry is concerned with isolating those particular fractions of proteins which are responsible for producing immunity in the human and animal organism. The ultimate gaal of this work is to obtain a wide spectrum antigen which will confer immunity to many diseases. Estimate, 1967 By 1967, the Soviets probably will have made significant progress toward clarifying the relationship between protein composition of microorganisms and their disease-produc- ing properties. Soviet attempts to modify partially-denatured proteins and to effect their resynthesis may be successful. If this research is successful, the Soviets may be able to alter- natural proteins to'form compounds with greater therapeutic or toxic properties than known natural compounds. Soviet use of radioisotopes will result in a more complete understanding of intermediary metabolism of proteins and amino acids and may answer some of the problems on origin of degenera- tive diseases. Soviet basic research on the origin of life is centered in the field of protein chemistry and particularly in enzymology. Western sci- entists are only slightly more advanced than the Soviets in this field and a major advance may occur by 1967 from either group. The potential application of a major advance in understanding the role of proteins and their constituents in intermediate metabolism is vast and would affect specifically the fields of nutritive, infectious, metabolic, mental, and degenerative diseases, and the economy generally. Military Implications Synthesis of modified proteins with highly toxic properties would have definite military implications, particularly in the chemical warfare field. Success in determining the fraction of a microorganism which produces immunity would alter many of the procedures currently employed in immunization. As a result, military campaigns would not be hindered by loss of manpower resulting from certain diseases. Advances in protein chem- istry also could solve many problems related to blood substitutes, storage of blood, mecha- nisms of shock, a.nd therapy for burns and blast injuries. SATELLITE AND CHINESE COMMUNIST SUPPORT IN BASIC MEDICAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT The USSR is scientifically independent of its Satellite countries and Communist China in the field of medical research. Satellite efforts in the field of public health, however, have benefited the USSR by lowering the number of man-hours lost through disease, thereby rendering economic exploitation more profitable. East Germany and Czecho- slovakia furnish many instruments and ma- terials for medical research. Several Satellite countries are also doing research which will add slightly to Soviet medical knowledge. East Germany contributes in the fields of nu- clear medicine, pharmacology, and biochem- istry. Hungary has competence in biochem- istry, particularly in enzymology and protein studies, and in pharmacology. Poland may possibly contribute to hematology, physiology, biochemistry, and microbiology. Czechoslo- vakia will make contributions in microbiology and technical apparatus; this country also has some capability in aviation medicine and has a sound pharmaceutical industry. The re- maining Satellites are not expected to add significantly to Soviet medical knowledge. Communist China is in no position at present to contribute to Soviet basic medical research since problems of public health are still occupying first priority. ~ The exploita- tion of traditional Chinese medicine does not fit into the scheme of Soviet medical research, and aside from certain work in the biochem- istry and neurophysiology of the digestive tract, little basic work is being done. The much publicized "brain washing" indicates Chinese Communist field research in certain aspects of control of human behavior, but no evidence of original basic work has appeared. Although there is limited basic research potential in the. Satellite countries and Com- munist China, there is little likelihood that they will institute any broad, full-scale re- search programs of strategic importance to Soviet medical science by 1967. PART II-VETERINARY SCIENCES SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS There has been a continuous advancement and expansion of veterinary research capabil- ities and resources in the Soviet Union since World War II. The Soviets are expected to reduce the overall lead of the United States in veterinary sciences in the next decade. Veterinary research in the USSR is well organized and controlled. Despite the in- creased responsibilities being delegated to lower levels, centralized control is being main- tained at the Ministry of Agriculture level. Although the average Soviet veterinarian has a lower competency than his Western counter- part, some veterinary research investigators are equal to the best in the world. More vet- erinarians are believed to be engaged in re- search activity in the USSR than in the United States. Also, the rate of growth of veterinary manpower is greater in the USSR. Basic veterinary research is being given less emphasis -than applied and developmental research. The majority of Soviet applied re- search is devoted to pressing livestock. prob- lems, and the veterinary program is stressing the development of biological products and techniques for the immunization, diagnosis, and treatment of animal diseases. Livestock health has been at a low level. in the USSR, but a major attempt is being made to correct this situation through disease control, rather than eradication. We believe that Soviet research capabilities in the veterinary sciences will increase con- siderably during the next ten years and that the lag between research achievement and practical application will diminish. Long- range improvements will undoubtedly result from better application of research findings and the continuation of present research com- petency in such fields as parasitology, epizo- otiology, and microbiology. The resultant effect on livestock productivity will be defi- nite, but gradual, gains which, nevertheless, will .fall short of currently envisioned goals. By 1967, there may be a shift from control to eradication of many of the major livestock diseases: Basic veterinary research is expected to in- crease in stature and volume, and more re- search attention will be placed on chronic infections and non-infectious diseases. There will also be more support of public health and comparative medical studies. The continua- tion of present research efforts will lead to the availability of more effective and refined bio- logical agents. Some of the best veterinary advances may be expected in the field of virol- ogy, where efforts to develop large-scale tis- sue culture techniques for virus propagation will probably increase significantly. The continued expansion of veterinary re- search resources and scope of interests will give the USSR a formidable scientific capa- bility to support antilivestock biological war- fare efforts. The present Soviet potential in this regard, is already strong, and facilities for mass-production of veterinary biologicals could be readily converted to production of antianimal agents. Veterinary services will probably be expanded to provide greater aux- iliary medical and research support for the Soviet civil defense system. ORGANIZATION, PLANNING, AND CONTROL Veterinary research in the USSR is the the USSR engage in research investigations responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture to a lesser extent. and is conducted primarily in 62 central and Overall plans for veterinary research are peripheral scientific research veterinary estab- coordinated at the Ministry of Agriculture lishments which are under the jurisdiction of level and are designed to deal with the most the Ministry. important livestock problems. The veteri- The leading central veterinary research in- . nary research... program is first submitted to stallation, the All-Union Institute of Experi- the Council of Veterinary Affairs, an advisory mental Veterinary Medicine, organizes and group to the Minister of Agriculture, and then coordinates the programs undertaken by So- is forwarded to the Minister for approval and viet veterinary research institutes. The other inclusion in the state agricultural plan for the five central institutes specialize in various forthcoming year. fields of veterinary research and provide tech- Centralized research control in the veteri- nical guidance to the peripheral research es- nary sciences is expected to continue during tablishments. The latter conduct research as the period of this estimate. As greater re- centrally directed but carry out investigations sponsibilities are delegated to the republic which pertain to regional veterinary problems. levels, .the bureaucratic practices which have In addition, a substantial amount of funds- hampered the successful application of veteri- mental research in the animal sciences is con- nary research will probably be reduced in the ducted by institutions of the All-Union Acad- USSR. Research activity in the Soviet veteri= emy of Agricultural Sciences imeni Lenin, the nary establishment will continue its expan- Academy of Sciences, USSR, and various sion at all levels, and regional veterinary prob- zoological institutes. Veterinary schools and lems will be given increased .research atten- veterinary faculties of agricultural schools of tion. EXTENT .AND ADEQUACY OF PRESENT AND FUTURE RESEARCH FACILITIES There has been a continuing expansion of Soviet veterinary research facilities, equip- ment, and physical plants in recent years, designed for a rapid improvement of the So- viet veterinary capability. Significant im- provement is apparent in the quality and quantity of laboratory equipment and ma- terials being produced in the USSR and less reliance is being placed on procurement of these products from Western or Satellite sources. Most inadequacies continue to exist in those institutions engaged in veterinary research projects of lower priority, despite the expan- sion of facilities and improved .distribution of equipment at local levels since 1954. The proportion of the facilities allocated for re- search of a fundamental nature remains rel- atively small as compared with the proportion of facilities allotted to applied veterinary re- search devoted to the solution of pressing livestock problems. As a result of the rapid expansion, it is believed that more adequate and modern supplies, equipment, and facil- ities will be made available in the next ten years, and will be .more evenly distributed throughout various .levels of the veterinary organization. QUALITY, QUANTITY, AND EFFECTIVE UTILIZATION OF MANPOWER The training of high quality personnel for research endeavors has marked the expansion of veterinary science in the USSR. Also, the current Soviet emphasis on improved live- stock productivity is placing increased de- mands on the training of veterinarians; zoo- 26 technicians, and their .assistants. The pres- ent. basic training of Soviet veterinarians is roughly comparable to that given to Western veterinarians. Formerly, Soviet veterinary training tended to emphasize narrow and se- lected aspects of the science with the result that the general competency of the average Soviet veterinarian appears to be somewhat below his Western .counterpart. Some Soviet veterinarians, however, have achieved a level of research ability which compares favorably with that of leading veterinary scientists in other parts of the world. These men provide an expanding nucleus of highly skilled vet- erinarians in key positions. Moreover, expan- sion of -the educational system is forcing changes in veterinary curricula which will favorably affect the future quality of veteri- nary scientific manpower in the USSR. In the last few years, there has been a major shift in the distribution of Soviet veterinary personnel. Large numbers have been trans- ferred from administrative positions to posts more closely associated with livestock. prob- lems. If current trends continue, more men of high calibre will be-freed from day-to-day administrative responsibilities and will be available for Soviet veterinary research and practice. The exact number of Soviet veterinarians engaged in research is not known, but over 1,800 individual scientific investigators in the USSR have been identified through their au- thorship of veterinary articles which were published from 1950-55. In comparison, be- tween 1,300 and 1,400 veterinarians are esti- mated to be currently engaged in research and teaching in the United States. The position of Soviet manpower in veteri- nary medicine will probably improve more than the position of U.S. manpower, despite the establishment of seven new U.S. veteri- nary schools since World War II. Current rates of growth of veterinary manpower are greater in the Soviet Union than in the United States. There are no indications that these rates will slacken, especially in view of pres- sures being applied by the Soviet government to accelerate livestock productivity. There are only 17 U.S. veterinary schools compared to 35 Soviet graduate level institutes for vet- erinary medicine and 110 schools for the training of veterinary technicians. OBJECTIVES, MAJOR ACHIEVEMENTS, TRENDS, AND FUTURE CAPABILITIES IN VETERINARY SCIENCES OBJECTIVES The Soviet veterinary research program is designed to increase the production of eco- nomically essential livestock and livestock products by reducing losses resulting from livestock diseases and husbandry problems which mast influence short-term productivity and expansion of the livestock industry in the USSR. The shortage of livestock is gen- erally recognized by Soviet leaders to be a major agricultural problem, and veterinary research has assumed .an increasingly prom- inent role in the Soviet national economy. Research The status of veterinary research and tech- nology in the USSR has improved significant- ly since World War II. Applied veterinary research is receiving strong emphasis and defi- nite, but gradual, improvement may be ex- pected in the Soviet livestock situation. Im- plementation of Party directives regarding in- creases in livestock numbers and productivity has been noted at .all levels of the Soviet vet- erinary establishment. Soviet ability .for research in veterinary medicine is being enhanced. The capability of veterinary research workers for original contributions is not outstanding but is im- proving. Soviet veterinarians have conducted competent research, some of which compares favorably with Western research. Basic vet- erinary research is given less emphasis than are applied and developmental investigations. Although Soviet interest in basic veterinary 27 research has risen in recent years, it has been hampered by political support of scientifically unsound concepts and strong encouragements by the State for applied research. Promising lines of endeavor have appeared in Soviet veterinary research since the recent reorientation toward increased scientific ex- change with Western and Satellite countries. Past restrictions on scientific information has, in large measure, contributed to the delayed progress of veterinary research in the USSR. There has been a trend away from the entity known as "Soviet veterinary medicine" and toward a return to conventional research, un- complicated by pseudo-scientific ideologies such as those of Lysenko and Bosh'yan. Until these dogmas were publicly renounced, prog- ress of veterinary research in such fields as animal genetics, microbiology, and nutrition suffered. Soviet capability to exploit Western research and development no doubt will con- tinue to improve with the removal of unortho- dox doctrines and with greater freedom of in- ternational exchange. The application of the principles of Pavlov to most phases of the livestock industry and to basic zoological research has also been a predominant trend in the Soviet veterinary effort. Since 1953, however, the Soviets, while promoting the same generally accepted prin- ciples, have been less dogmatic and more practical- with some evidences being noted of open disagreement on "Pavlovianism." Major emphasis is being put on improved field application of research findings. Slow and incomplete utilization of the practical benefits of veterinary research is a major deficiency which has contributed to the rel- atively low level of animal health in the USSR. There is a major attempt being made to rem- edy this situation and some immediate bene- fits should be realized. Long-range improve- ments, however, will be based on continuation of the reasonably good capability which cur- rently exists in the research on infectious livestock diseases, disinfection, and parasi- tology. Steady progress has been made in vet- erinary virology since World War II. Soviet veterinary viral research often assumes a crash character. As a result, it is developing more rapidly than many, of the other veteri- nary disciplines, presumably because most of the livestock diseases of prime economic im- portance to the USSR are of viral etiology. The approach to problems of livestock dis- ease through control rather than eradication has been an important trend. This philoso- phy has been predominant largely because of the relatively high prevalence of serious dis- eases, such as brucellosis, foot-and-mouth dis- ease, and hog cholera, which appear to render programs of disease eradication economically infeasible in the USSR. As a result, Soviet veterinary research is emphasizing the devel- opment of biological products and methods for improved immunization, diagnosis, and treatment of animal diseases. Veterinary scientists have tended to con- centrate their disease studies on the applied aspects of epizootiology, microbiology, immu- nology, parasitology, and toxicology. Efforts to control foot-and-mouth disease, brucellosis, hog cholera, Newcastle disease, anthrax, the encephalitides, and parasitic diseases are re- ceiving the major attention in Soviet livestock disease efforts. Biologicals Soviet production of biologicals has improved measurably, and over 26 bioplants are known to be producing some 80 biological products for veterinary use. Major emphasis has been. placed on the development of live, dry vac- cines and improved diagnostic agents, par- . titularly those of an allergenic nature. De- spite the enhanced capabilities currently dem- onstrated by the Soviet veterinary bioin- dustry for lyophilization and mass-production, shortages of vitally needed veterinary prod- ucts, such as certain broad-spectrum anti- biotics, continue to exist for field use. There is widespread veterinary interest in the devel- opment and extensive usage of antibiotics, but veterinary research in antibiotics, though promising, appears to be repetitive of Western research. 28 rnrT~+rr~~~Tmx.:~ COMPARATIVE TRENDS, U.S.-USSR Research Although strong efforts are currently un- derway in Soviet veterinary research, the USSR lags the United States in practically all fields of livestock research and production. This lag is gradually narrowing as veterinary medicine in the USSR continues its rapid advancement, particularly in the application of knowledge gained through research on the prevention and control of animal diseases. They have achieved excellent results in re- cent years in the reduction of some of the most serious livestock infectious diseases. Soviet research has equaled and at times ex- celled U.S. efforts in such basic fields of vet- erinary science as helminthology, entomology, and other sub-fields of parasitology; physiolo- gy; toxicology; and some areas of epizootiolo- gy. Soviet veterinary research in immunolo- gy, microbiology, and pathology, has reached acceptable levels of proficiency but generally is inferior to U.S. research. The quality of Soviet reporting in the vet- erinary sciences appears to be poor, as does the general understanding and use of sound scientific methodology and laboratory disci- pline. Published veterinary research in the USSR is frequently of inferior quality by U.S. standards, and avowed scientific accomplish- ments are often insufficiently supported with factual material to permit verification. Despite a decentralization trend in recent years, Soviet research programs in veterinary medicine continue to be governed from the national level. In contradistinction, U.S. vet- erinary research is not federally controlled al- though amajor amount of investigative work is conducted by federal employees or through government grants or contracts. A consid- erable number of able veterinarians are em- ployed by U.S. manufacturers of biological, pharmaceutical, feed, and other commercial products. These firms support research in their own installations and also make grants to agricultural experiment stations. Veterinary specialization is roughly com- parable in both countries although private practitioners, which are a feature of U.S. vet- erinary medicine, are not known in the USSR. There are more .veterinarians and veterinary personnel believed to be engaged in research activity in the USSR than in the United States. Veterinary practice in the United States is so lucrative that it is difficult to in- terest many capable personnel in the lesser- paying fields of veterinary research and teach- ing. As a result, the shift to economically insignificant fields, such as small animal med- icine, has decreased the U.S. number of vet- erinary research workers. In the USSR, this scientific manpower is not lost and a high proportion of veterinarians engage in research pursuits for remunerative and recognition reasons. Although Soviet veterinarians are extend- ing their fields of research interest, U.S. vet- erinary investigators are doing considerably more work in such fields ` of comparative medicine as radiobiology, pathology, surgery, pharmacology, epidemiology, and aviation medicine. Absolute eradication of the serious live- stock diseases of economic importance is the ultimate goal of veterinary research in both countries. Whereas the Soviet veterinary es- tablishment is completely geared to the agri- cultural economy, there are definite organi- zational and research trends in U.S. veteri- nary medicine directed towards greater ac- tivity in public health fields. Diagnostic capa- bility is considered. to be inferior in the Soviet Union where laboratory services and adequate diagnostic agents are not as readily available as in the United States. Animal disease re- porting has improved tremendously in the United States in recent years, but such report- ing is better controlled in the USSR as a result of collectivization and domination by central authority. The progress shown by the So- viets in the recently improved control of im- portant infectious diseases of livestock has been very great. Furthermore, this progress has been achieved in a country whose hygienic practices in animal husbandry border on a primitive level in most areas. Despite the lower general competency of Soviet veterinar- ians, more professional attention, by sheer 29 weight of numbers and: better distribution of veterinarians and trained technicians, has been made available for the economically significant species of animals. Biologicals No Soviet biological products or techniques for practical veterinary use have been devel- oped which can be considered superior to those now available in the United States. Soviet veterinary investigators have demonstrated a proficiency for exploiting research achieve- ments from other parts of the world. For example, the U.S. Strain # 19 vaccine for brucellosis prophylaxis in cattle (used since 1940 in the United States) has had wide- spread usage in the USSR since 1954. Re- cently, this vaccine has been adapted for large-scale immunization of people who are iri close occupational contact with sheep and goats. in endemic areas. While they have been slow in adopting foreign work in the past, current trends indicate that sound U.S. and other Western accomplishments are be- ing incorporated rapidly into Soviet veteri- nary and livestock programs. Considerable reliance continues to be placed on large-scale use of dry, live vaccines in the USSR. Because of the potential hazard of spread to unaffected areas,. widespread use of these live bacterial and viral strains has been accepted reluctantly in the United States and then only for diseases for which no other satis- factory immunogenic agent has -been devel- oped. ESTIMATE, 1967 We believe that Soviet veterinary research capabilities will increase considerably during .the next ten years. Soviet leaders will re- main keenly aware of the importance of vet- erinary research to economic development and will continue to support it vigorously. By 1967, the Soviet Union .will command greater respect for its veterinary research ability. There is no indication that the current en- couragement of applied science will cause a neglect of basic or long-range veterinary re- search. The long existing discrepancy be- tween veterinary research and .practical ap- plication will continue for the foreseeable future, although we expect the lag to dimin- ish. The resultant effect on livestock pro- ductivity and numbers will .not be great but will gradually benefit Soviet food potential. The impressive goals set by Khrushchev and the current Five-Year Plan, however, are un- realistic. "Crash-type" efforts will continue in veterinary research for improved means of protecting livestock from serious infectious diseases, parasitisms, and nutritional disor- ders which are prevalent in the USSR. More veterinary research will be directed to studies of livestock nutrition, genetics, artificial in- semination, reproductive disorders, regional epizootiology, food technology, antibiotic de- velopment, and broader utilization of anti- biotics in the livestock and food industries. Some of the best achievements are expected in the field of virology which will stress an in- creasing number of fundamental investiga- tions, such as the study of protein structure and synthesis, purification, recombination, controlled .variability, effect of ultrasonics, and intracellular "multiplication." It is probable that Soviet efforts to develop large-scale tissue culture methods for virus propagation will increase significantly during the period of this estimate. Stress may be placed on studies relating to the immuno- genesis, synergistic relationships, host inter- actions, latent infection, and virulence of viral organisms. The Soviets can be expected to continue their efforts for improving lyo- philization techniques and for screening exotic and indigenous strains of viruses for their various properties. Support to human medical research by So- viet veterinary workers will be expanded as it has in the United States in recent years. Veterinary research for experimental animal data for extrapolation to man will be provided on a greater scale in studies such as those on physiological stress, pathogenesis, wound in- fection, and space medicine. Whereas problems of livestock productivity will continue to dominate the veterinary re- search program in the USSR, veterinary in- vestigations on those diseases communicable from animals to man will be increased. The zoonotic diseases not only will receive in- creased research attention, but more Soviet veterinarians will become active in public health efforts. The present program to make husbandry personnel more aware of proper hygienic and management practices will prob- ably be intensified. By 1967, there may be a shift in the direc- tion of Soviet veterinary medicine from con- trol of major epizootic infections to ultimate eradication. Although study of the acute in- fectious diseases of animals will continue on a large scale and substantial progress in their control will be demonstrated, increased re- search emphasis will be given to control of non-infectious and chronic diseases of live- stock. Biologicals Increased veterinary research potential probably will lead to the availability of more effective and refined immunizing, diagnostic, and therapeutic agents by 1967. The heavy reliance on the use of vaccines and other prophylactic biologicals will continue but. not, as now, to the point of sacrificing good sani- tary measures. Soviet development of a single immunogenic agent which is protective against a combination of animal diseases is considered improbable within the period of this estimate although advances in this direc- tion will be achieved. Assay of veterinary biological and pharmaceutical products prior to utilization in the field will be improved over the rather crude testing which has character- ized Soviet quality control of these products. Therapeutic agents with viricidal properties, particularly among the antibiotics, will oc- cupy aprominent part of future veterinary research activity. MILITARY IMPLICATIONS Improving Soviet capabilities for veterinary research, development, and production will give the USSR a stronger potential for anti- livestock biological warfare efforts. The scale and orientation of effort in certain areas of animal disease research, as well as the gen- eral level of competence, are sufficient to con- tribute significantly to future developments in antilivestock BW. In particular, Soviet facilities for production of veterinary biologi- cals could be converted readily to production of antianimal agents. This Soviet scientific potential for support of an antianimal pro- gram, considered together with the extreme vulnerability of the U.S. livestock industry, constitutes a real threat to the United States in a cold or active war. The increasing capability for original re- search in various fields of veterinary medicine may result in improved Soviet defense for live- stock against nuclear, biological, and chemi- cal weapons that will at least parallel U.S. progress in these fields. Continuation of the active veterinary effort to produce immuno- genic, diagnostic, and therapeutic agents will improve Soviet defensive capabilities and may progressively override many of-the deficiencies in livestock management in the USSR. Con- siderable indoctrination and refresher train- ing will continue to be carried out on the veterinary aspects of defense against mass de- struction weapons. This will result in im- proved hygienic, disinfection, and quarantine practices as well as more effective efforts. by those agencies responsible for animal disease control. It is expected that the role of veterinary services in the widely organized Soviet civil defense system in such areas as animal care, sanitation, and decontamination will be ex- tended to give greater auxiliary support for human defense. Certain products, such as antianthrax serum and vaccine, will continue to be prescribed and stockpiled for emergency human use. Research on bovine and other animal plasma as blood extenders for human transfusion and other purposes may be more actively pursued although their use in clinical human medicine has been on the decline. 31 SATELLITE AND CHINESE COMMUNIST SUPPORT IN VETERINARY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT The USSR is not dependent upon the scien- tific veterinary capabilities of the Satellite countries or Communist China although cer- tain of their capabilities which complement Soviet research are exploited. East Germany, Czechoslovakia, and Hun- gary have made outstanding contributions to world knowledge of the veterinary sciences. The achievements of internationally recog- nized veterinary scientists and institutions in these countries will add to Soviet knowledge, particularly in such '.....,fields as microbiology, biochemistry, and pharmacology, and in the development of technical equipment. Increas- ing enrollments in higher educational insti- tutions, reorganization of research institutes, and preferential treatment of scientists ap- pear designed to increase the general veter- inary capabilities of Satellite countries. The increased flow of scientific information and visits. between veterinary scientists in these countries and the Soviet Union will probably result in broadening the base of vet- erinary research in the USSR. The Satellites and Communist China, however, can be ex- pected to give only limited support in veter- inary research of strictly military significance.