THE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OF CARTOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES FOR THEMATIC MAPPING

• Document Type: FOIA
• Collection: FOIA Collection
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): 06729281
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: U
• Document Page Count: 136
• Document Creation Date: March 8, 2023
• Document Release Date: April 26, 2019
• Case Number: F-2018-02620
• Publication Date: October 1, 1971

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SE ET
(b)(3)
CIA HISTORICAL STAFF
The Directorate of Intelligence
Historical Series
THE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OF CARTOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
FOR THEMATIC MAPPING
ST
OBGI - 8
October 1971
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WARNING
This document contains information affecting the national
defense of the United States, within the meaning of Title
18, sections 793 and 794, of the US Code, as amended.
Its transmission or revelation of its contents to or re-
ceipt by an unauthorized person is prohibited by law.
GROUP I
Excluded from automatic
downgrading and declastification
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SERtET
(b)(3)
THE DD/I HISTORICAL SERIES
OBGI - 8
THE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OF CARTOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
FOR THEMATIC MAPPING
by
October 1971
(b)(3)
(b)(6)
(b)(3)
(b)(6)
on.-
Directo
Bas c and Geographic Intel igence
HISTORICAL STAFF
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
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I.
Contents
1110.
Introduction
1
A. OSS Thematic Mapping Concepts
1
B. United States Postwar Commitments
Produce New Pressures for
Thematic Maps
5
C. The Four Periods of Technical
Development
6
II.
Chronological Development (1947-1970)
9
(b)(6)
A. The
Era: A Period of Relatively
(b)(3)
Low-key Development (1947-1954)
9
1. A Cartographic Lab Becomes
Part of the New Agency
Cartographic Organization
9
2. Lab Personnel Are Selected
10
3. Problems of Development
During This Period
12
4. Significant Lab Accomplishments
During This Period in the Form
of Cartographic Aids
15 -
a. Line-weight Guide
16
b. Type Guide
17
c. Color Guide
18
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Page
d. Symbol Guide
19
5.
Other Lab Accomplishments
During This Period
21
a. Pelikan Pens and Ink
b. The Introduction of Plastic
21
as a Drafting Medium
24
6.
Other Development and Construc-
tion Branch Personnel Become
Involved in Experiments
a. Introduction of a Punch
25
Register System
26
b. Initial Contact with Scribing
29
7.
Recapitulation of the Period
31
B.
Period of Vigorous Development
(1954-1962)
32
1. Mr. Takes Over (b)(3)
the Cartographic Lab (b)(6)
2. A Broad Lab Program Is Formally
Approved 33
3. The Cartographic Lab Becomes a
Two-man Section 37
4. Significant Accomplishments of
This Period 38
a. Scribing Procedures Estab-
lished for Thematic Mapping 38
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C.
b. The Introduction of Repro-
duction Support Facilities
c. Pencil Compilation Techniques
d. Revamping the Symbol Files
e. Type Placement Guide
Page
51
58
62
64
5.
Other Accomplishments During
This Period
67
a. Accent Sheets
67
b. Plastic Cutting Table
69
c. Craftsman Line-up Table
70
d. Japanese Penpoint
71
e. Rubylith
73
f. Conversion of Drafting Tables
to Light Tables
74
6.
Electroluminescence: A Memorable
Failure
75
7.
The Era Ends
79
(b)(3)
The
Era: A Period of
(b)(6)
Renewed
Activity
(1963-1964)
80
1.
Mr. Takes
Over Lab on Transfer From the
Army Map Service
2. Significant Accomplishments of
This Period
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80
81
(b)(3)
(b)(6)
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a. Expansion of Reproduc-
tion Support Facilities 81
b. Kodak Kodagraph Wash-Off
Film 83
c. Cronaflex Film for Compi-
lation 85
d. Experimentation with Silk
Screening 86
3. The Cartographic Lab Again
Becomes Dormant 88
D. Research and Development Continues
Informally and Sporadically (1965-
1970) 88
1. An Intensive Search for a Lab
Man Is Fruitless But Research
and Development Do Not Stop 88
2. Significant Accomplishments
During This Period 91
a. Duplication Scribecoat 91
b. Slot Register System 93
c. Hollow-tipped Scribing
Cutters 96
d. Diatype Photocomposing
Machine 97
3. Maintaining a Position of Technical
Leadership Becomes Increasingly
Difficult 100
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E. Ad hoc Procedures 101
1. Khe Sanh Model 103
2. East China Map 105
Conclusion 109
Appendix
Comment on Sources
113
Illustrations
Figure 1. Line Weight Guide 114
Figure 2. Sample Type Guide Page - 115
Figure 3. Sample Color Guide Page 116
Figure 4. Sample Symbol Guide Page 117
Figure 5. K & E White Scribecoat
118
Figure 6. Sapphire Multiple-line Scribing
Samples 119
Figure 7. K & E Helio Scribecoat 120
Figure 8. Direct Reproduction Striprite 121
Figure 9. Sample of Colored Pencil
Manuscript and Helio Scribe-
coat Transfer 122
Figure 10. Sample Accent Sheet 123
Figure 11. Kodagraph Wash-Off Film 124
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Figure 12. K & E Duplication Scribecoat 125
Figure 13. Photo of Moffett Slot Register
Punch 126
Figure 14. Photo of Diatype Photocomposing
Machine 127
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THE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OF CARTOGRAPHIC
TECHNIQUES FOR THEMATIC MAPPING
I. Introduction
A. OSS Thematic Mapping Concepts
Thematic mapping, as a profession, was virtually non-
existent at the beginning of World War II.* Major mapping
organizations, such as the Army Engineer Reproduction Plant
(predecessor to the Army Map Service), the Navy Hydrographic
Office, the Coast and Geodetic Survey, and the Geological
Survey, employed conventional methods of map production
which had been established in World War I days. These leisurely
patterns, set in the early 1900'5, were little changed by 1940.
Even with the outbreak of World War II, the service organizations
met the increased demands placed on them for maps by greatly
increasing their staffs and by inaugurating around-the-clock pro-
duction, rather than by streamlining the old, inefficient methods.
* A thematic map emphasizes a single subject, while omitting
or subordinating all other data. The production of such maps
is a highly specialized art, involving the interplay of thoroughly
trained research cartographers and skilled technical cartographers
and draftsmen. This report deals primarily with the technical
aspects of thematic map production and touches on research only
as it relates to production techniques.
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1
The first OSS cartographers came to Washington with
degrees in geography and little practical training in cartog-
raphy. What cartographic training they had received was of
the textbook variety and constituted a general knowledge of the
conventional methods of map production. Production facilities
and equipment available to them simulated the University carto-
graphic lab environment. Despite this meager background they
quickly realized that they could not produce the variety of
thematic maps needed, with the speed and urgency demanded, by
following conventional mapping standards and procedures. New
concepts. had to be developed immediately for thematic map pro- �
duction and thus the foundation was laid for what was to become
the Agency's Cartography Division.
Production procedures on both the compilation and con-
struction phases were drastically streamlined. Whereas conven-
tional methods dictated a formal, hard-line approach, thematic
mapping demanded a more informal, more open approach,
especially during periods of great urgency. Conventional
methods also called for voluminous manuscript instructions and
specifications, while thematic mapping required only those
specifications needed to adequately inform the draftsman. By
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conventional methods, drafting was always performed on heavy
metal-mounted strathmore boards with extreme accuracy and
high quality workmanship; thematic mapping was executed on
light weight, easy-to-handle translucent materials at a more
realistic degree of accuracy and quality related to scale. Where-
as conventional methods necessitated costly and time-consuming
full-color press proofs for editing, thematic mapping editing was
accomplished by examining the original drawings thus eliminating
the need for a proof. The entire production process was compress-
ed for the prime purpose of speeding up production to meet the
pressures and deadlines of an increasing workload without increas-
ing the number of personnel. One fundamental concept of
conventional mapping was retained for overall efficiency -- that
of separating research compilation and drafting. It was agreed
in the early 40's, and it still holds today, that greater efficiency
of production was achieved by totally separating these two basic
phases of thematic map production.
With production procedures fairly well established, OSS
cartographers began to develop new techniques to augment the
new system. investigation and research had to be performed
in several basic areas to expand their knowledge and use of basic
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drawing materials, inks and type. There was no specific unit
established in the OSS Cartography Division to handle these
investigations so specific assignments were made on an infor-
mal basis as the need arose. Results were generally successful,
and the new system developed a rather high degree of sophisti-
cation for the period.
At the end of World War II, the OSS Cartography Division,
Research and Analysis Branch, was transferred to the Depart-
ment of State in anticipation of the establishment of a new intelli-
gence organization. There it remained until 1947. During this
period there was too little work for too many people, and it
became necessary to improvise work to keep the cartographers
busy.
An experimental Lab unit was informally established to
investigate new cartographic techniques that had been developed
by the major mapping organizations as a result of war pressures
and to work up basic concepts on thematic map symbolization.
In pursuit of this aim, visits were made to other governmental
mapping agencies. One such visit to the Cartographic Lab of
the Coast and Geodetic Survey was so impressive that the visit-
ing cartographers strongly recommended a similar setup in any
future thematic mapping organization.
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B. United States Postwar Commitments Produce New
Pressures for Thematic Maps
1
The advice and recommendations of the experimental Lab
unit were heeded. When the Cartography Branch was transferred
to the Agency in December 1947, its new organization included a
cartographic lab. Subsequent US foreign commitments put
extreme pressure on the Cartographic Branch to produce thematic
maps to support Agency requirements. The rebuilding of Europe
under the Marshall Plan, the imposition of the "Iron Curtain",
the Berlin Airlift, the creation of NATO, the takeover of China
by the Communists, the first Soviet nuclear explosion, .and the
Korean conflict were happenings that led to demands for more and
more thematic maps to support briefings and to provide expanded
graphic support to the economic, political, and military research
and operational efforts of the Agency. The pressure to increase
production continued, and it intensified the need for more efficient
production procedures and techniques to meet these demands.
Throughout the history of the Cartography Division there
was, for one reason or another, a constant shortage of drafts-
men. The imbalance between compilers and draftsmen was cited
regularly as a major problem in Division monthly reports in the
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1950's, and the situation continued through the 1960's. Short-
ening the draftsman's time to complete an assignment was the
only means of keeping abreast of the problem.
These compelling influences gave the impetus that led to
the development of the procedures and techniques employed
today and put the Agency's Cartography Division in its position
of leadership in thematic map production.
C. The Four Periods of Technical Development
During the entire reporting period (1947-1970) cartographic
research and development was given the highest degree of backing
and support by Division and Office management. Office Directors,
Dr. Otto E. Guthe (1947-1965), Mr. James A. Brammell (1965-
(b)(3)
1970) and Dr. John K. King (1970 - ), and Division Chiefs, M(b)(6)
1947-1965), Mr.
1970), and Mr
(1970
(1(b)(3)
(b)(6)
- ),,fully supported every
move to keep the Agency's cartographic effort in the forefront.
Despite this dynamic approach by management, the fact could
not be altered that Lab effectiveness was always dependent on
the ability, motivation, and imagination of the Lab personnel
assigned to perform the investigations, research, and development.
(b)(3)
(b)(6)
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Therefore, the history of the Cartography Division's efforts
in this developmental field can be divided into four periods.
Three periods related to the persons occupying the Lab position
during these years. The fourth period occurred after the Lab,
per se, was abolished for the lack of a suitable person to fill
the position. Also during this final period, the Division's
mission expanded so greatly that despite management's feelings
regarding research and development, there was no alternative
but to support critical production problems in preference to
research and development. The four periods were: 1947-1954,
1954-1962, 1963-1964, and 1964-1970, with the most vigorous
and meaningful development occurring during the second period.
During this entire interval the Division was constantly con-
fronted with requests for maps which, because of their urgency
and/or odd requirements, necessitated adjustments or modifi-
cations to the standard operating procedures of the time and
continually tested its organizational flexibility. These ad hoc
situations occurred hundreds of times over the years and
significantly enhanced the Division's outstanding reputation bir
being able to produce the "impossible job" by the required dead-
line. Ad hoc procedures will be discussed in a separate section
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and two projects, a model for the Special Assistant for
Vietnam Affairs (SAVA) and a map for the
(b)(1)
will be discussed in detail. (b)(3)
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II. Chronological Development (1947-1970)
A. The Era: A Period (b)(3)
of Relatively Low-key Development (1947-1954) (b)(6)
1. A Cartographic Lab Becomes Part of the New Agency
Cartographic Organization
In December 1947, the former OSS Cartography Division
was formally transferred to the Central Intelligence Agency and
became the Cartography Branch of the Map Division. The Branch
was comprised of four Sections: three Research Sections respon-
sible for performing cartographic research and manuscript
preparation, and a Construction Section responsible for the tech-
nical aspects of map production. The latter contained a Drafting
Unit, a Type Unit, and, most significantly, a Cartographic Lab.
In August 1952, the Cartography Branch was elevated to a Division,
and the Construction Section became the Development and Construc-
tion Branch, putting, as the name implied, further emphasis on
research and development. Several years later the name was
changed to the Technical Support Branch. To lessen the organi-
zational confusion the Agency's cartographic organization will
hereafter be called the Cartography Division.
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The experience gained and the success achieved by the
experimental Lab unit during the interim period with State proved
beyond a doubt that a Cartographic Lab was critical to any future
cartographic organization. Management, recognizing the value
of cartographic research and development, formally included the
Lab in the new organization. The Lab's responsibilities were:
1) to investigate and introduce new drafting and compiling tech-
niques, materials, and equipment; 2) to develop training and
working aids for compilers and draftsmen; 3) to develop new sym-
bols and establish and maintain orderly symbol files; 4) to work
with reproduction to upgrade the quality of printed maps; 5) to
keep abreast of developments in the field of cartography; and 6)
to train new personnel.
1
2. Lab Personnel Are Selected
The management of the Cartography Division discovered
quickly that all research and development problems were not
automatically solved by merely having a Cartographic Lab as
part of the organization. Well trained, highly motivated, tech-
nically inclined cartographers had to man the unit to make the
headway desired. The problem of finding suitable Lab personnel
faced the Branch in 1947 and several times thereafter.
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1
(b)(3)
A careful review of Branch personnel led to the sele.(b)(6)
tion of Mrs.
Lab "men". Mrs.
OSS days, and Miss
was with the
and Cartography, Department of State,
and Miss
as the first(b)(3)
(b)(6)
had been with the organization in(b)(3)
(b)(6)
Division of Geography
(b)(3)
before joining CIA. B(b)(6)
had thorough training and experience in all phases of thematic
map production. In addition, both had an artistic flair which was
of considerable value for the informal program in mind at the
time. As was to be learned later, neither Mrs.
Miss
which
nor(b)(3)
(b)(6)
had special technical competence, so projects (b)(3)
(b)(6)
involved the designing and constructing of mechanical aids
had to be abandoned. They did, however, accomplish much by
producing compilation and drafting aids during their tenure.
Mrs. 7esigned from the Agency in May 195(b)(3)
(b)(6)
and Miss was promoted to compiler and transferred tc(D)(6)
(b)(6)
a Research Compilation Section at approximately the same time,
leaving the Lab unoccupied for a short period.
In mid-1952, Miss
and Mr.
were chosen to take over the Lab responsibilities.
were cartographic draftsmen with several years
Miss
had an art background, and Mr.
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(b)(3)
(b)(6)
(b)(3)
Bc(b)(6)
experience. ("3)
(b)(6)
had been
(b)(3)
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called upon numerous times to assist in jobs that went beyond
his drafting responsibilities. They were considered the best
choices at the time to keep the Lab alive. Miss
devoted her major effort to training new personnel, which will
(b)(3)
(b)(6)
be explained later. Mr. ontinued to support the Branc(b)(3)
(b)(6)
on assignments that fell beyond normal drafting responsibilities
(b)(3)-
(b)(6)
and were turned over to the Lab for processing. The
era produced very little. Miss
the Agency in October 1953. Mr.
Lab man until he resigned in February 1954.
re signed from(b)(3)
(b)(6)
remained as the only(b)(3)
(b)(6)
3. Problems of Development During This Period
The full potential of a Cartographic Lab was never
realized during this period which spanned the late 1940's and
early 1950's. Part of the problem lay in the Lab personnel who
were just not capable and imaginative enough to meet the real
challenges that confronted them. This, of course, was not
fully realized at the time but became apparent in retrospect.
The rest of the problem lay in the fact that not all avail-
able Lab time was devoted to pure Lab-type assignments. The
Lab was assigned at the outset the responsibility of training new
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personnel, both draftsmen and compilers. Lab personnel
were also ccntinually tapped to support regular map production.
The training program was developed to indoctrinate
all draftsmen and compilers into the specialized world of thematic
mapping and to give appropriate training to enable them to make
the transition to full production with the least amount of stress.
A full line of projects was developed to carry the draftsman from
the most elemental task to the most complicated. High levels of
quality had to be achieved for each project before passing to the
next. All new draftsmen, even those with considerable prior ex-
perience, were put through the program to assure that they under-
stood clearly what was expected of them.
All compilers were also put through the same program
but for a different reason. The output of the compiler was a
manuscript map from which the draftsman prepared his final
drawings. Although he was not preparing final copy, the compiler's
work on this manuscript had to be succinct and unambiguous to
avoid any possible misunderstanding by the draftsman. By going
through the series of drafting projects the compiler improved
his ability to prepare the manuscript. He also gained an excellent
appreciation of the skill and exactitude required of the draftsman
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to meet his specifications. Additional work was given to the
compilers on type recognition and selection and the prepara-
tion of concise specifications and type orders.
The program required an average of eight weeks to
complete and demanded almost full time and attention from the
Lab instructor. Very little Lab work could be undertaken while
the training program was underway and, with many new persons
entering the Division during this period, the program was con-
ducted frequently.
Regular production at this time was building steadily
because of the demands being placed on the Cartography Division.
There was always an acute shortage of drafting help. Because
of the relatively low priority of its work, aside from training
new personnel, the Lab was repeatedly called upon to supply
assistance to the Drafting Unit, usually by assigning the second
person but quite often both Lab persons. When this occurred,
Lab projects that happened to be underway were naturally delayed.
The Lab was also a catchall for unique odd jobs so even the rela-
tively little time available for Lab work was further diluted with
these numerous small assignments.
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During this period the time available to further true
Lab-type efforts was well below 50 percent of the total. These
were years of "getting up steam" for the Branch. As experi-
ence was gained under the new organizational setup, many areas
of potential need for Lab support were recognized. Prime needs
(b)(3)
were considered, and those projects were selected which coul(b)(6)
1
be readily handled by the
or
teams. They included the preparation of line-weight guides,
type guides, printing color guides, handbook pages, and symbols.
Although not research projects, they were still in the realm of
Lab assignments, the results of which would save many hours of
compilation and drafting time and, in turn, greatly increase the
efficiency and quality of the general production scheme.
4. Significant Lab Accomplishments During This Period
in the Form of Cartographic Aids
As stated above, the production of thematic maps was
divided into two separate. operations: 1) the preparation of a
manuscript by the research compiler who was basically a geog-
rapher/cartographer, trained to extract the substantive details
from various sources; and 2) the production of the final drawings
by the skilled draftsman who was versed in the technical aspects
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of map construction. Under this arrangement, guidelines were
an absolute necessity in order to harmonize the production of a
number of compilers, to establish uniform standards, and to
allow compilers to communicate with the draftsmen. Essen-
tially, the need to coordinate the production efforts between the
two groups was the impelling force behind the development of
guides of all kinds.
a. Line-weight Guide
The line-weight guide was developed and prepared
to ease the compiler's problems in designing the map. With
this visual aid, which depicted page-wide samples of all line
weights available to him, the compiler visually checked the
guide against the manuscript to make his seleetion. The reverse
side of the page carried samples at 25 percent and 50 percent
reductions to demonstrate the effect of reducing the originals.
The draftsman, in turn, used the guide in selecting pens to
match the specified weights when preparing the final drawings.
The Leroy lettering point was used to achieve lines
from 0.012" to 0.15". Numerous samplings of each point were
made. Tests with a 40X shop microscope showed that the same
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numbered points produced a variety of line weights -- off but
a minute fraction, but significantly enough to upset a close
balance on occasion. The average of each point was then
determined, and this became the weight of the line that
appeared on the guide. Once the guide (Figure 1)* was dis-
tributed in paper and transparency form, virtually all con-
flicts concerning line weights between draftsman and compiler
vanished.
Several years later a line-weight guide for the
Pelikan pen was issued to supersede the Leroy guide.
b. Type Guide
The type guide (Figure 2) was prepared primarily
for use by the compiler in selecting styles and sizes of type in
designing the map. The Lab designed each page to show all
the available sizes of an individual style by showing words in
all capitals and in capitals and lower case, plus numerals at
each size. In addition, the complete font (all letters, numerals,
and punctuations available) was shown in a small size. The
reverse side of each page also contained sample reductions of
* All figures appear at the end of the text.
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25 percent and 50 percent for added usefulness. The type guide
was used by the draftsman to verify the type against the type
order prepared by the compiler.
Additional type styles were added to the guide over
the years, but the basic format, which had been excellently
designed, did not change.
c. Color Guide
This guide (Figure 3) was unique in its conception
since nothing similar had ever been designed specifically for
the compilation and construction of thematic maps. It was, in
a real sense, a visual comparator for the compiler to use in
making design judgments in the selection of lines, symbols,
tones, and type as related to color.
The Lab designed a page which contained a care-
fully selected group of symbols, lines, patterns, tones, and
type, arranged in such a way as to provide the compiler with a
visual image of what he could expect to get if he chose one, or
a similar item, when printed in the color of his choice. Since
he had this same page in all colors, the compiler had the means
to visually support his cartographic design judgments.
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Like the two other guides, the color guide was also
a help to the draftsman in type positioning. By referring to the
guide he was able to determine the hierarchy of overprinting
based on color and screen as selected by the compiler.
The color guide went through two subsequent revi-
sions between 1950 and 1966. Each revision, however, adhered
to the original basic design concept to give the cartographer a
means to make intelligent judgments.
d. Symbol Guide
The use of preprinted symbols to replace the tedi-
ous, time consuming hand-drafted variety began in OSS days.
From the early 1940's to 1952 a sizeable collection of abstract,
pictorial, and military symbols had accumulated. They were
extremely useful and had saved an incalculable amount of man-
power in that time. It was, however, a hodgepodge, unorganized
collection. In line with the development of a more professional,
viable organization the Lab was directed to give order and direc-
tion to the symbol problem.
To simplify symbol use, the Lab carefully deter-
mined standard sizes, and, where necessary, symbols were
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enlarged or reduced to fit these standards. Symbols were
numerically indexed. Sizes were assigned letter designations.
Once these standards were instituted the preparation of symbol
pages began. The resultant guide (Figure 4) became a series
of symbol pages organized to provide better communication
between the compiler and draftsman and to provide a visual
image of the various available symbols in their different sizes
to aid the compiler in his design efforts.
During this early period of development, continued
requirements for additional symbols were turned over to the Lab.
As these new symbols were made part of the file, new pages
were produced to keep the system as up-to-date as possible.
To assist the draftsman in his efforts, a file was
established to make locating the preprinted copy a simple opera-
tion. In connection with it, display panels were produced for
location and identification.
The symbol file remained in this form until a
major revamping was undertaken during the next period of Lab
development.
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5. Other Lab Accomplishments During This Period
Information on various cartographic developments was
being received by the Cartography Division through personal con-
tacts with cartographers of other agencies (foreign and domestic)
and at professional meetings such as the American Congress on
Surveying and Mapping (AGSM) and the Visual Communications
Congress (VCC) conventions. Even though the bulk of available
Lab time went into preparing and maintaining the guides, some
effort was put into those new developments which were deemed
important enough to be of immediate benefit to the Division. Two
of these were the testing and introduction of the German Pelikan
pens and inks and the introduction of plastic as a drafting and
compilation medium.
a. Pelikan Pens and Ink
As compared to topographic mapping, where an
0.010" line was considered a heavy line, thematic mapping
required the use of lines up to 0.15". Obtaining these heavy
line weights on a consistent basis was a problem. Leroy letter-
ing points were used by the draftsmen to obtain lines from 0.010"
to 0.15" in weight. The practice dated back to early OSS days.
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Leroy pens were difficult to use because of their design and
their poor quality of construction resulted in varying line
widths from identically numbered points. However, they were
the only pens available to do the job required.
In the late 1940's the Gunther-Wagner Company
of Germany introduced the Pelikan tubular "fountain" drawing
pen with a variety of nibs. A complete set of these pens and
points was procured by the US Geographic Attache in the area,
and tests were made to determine their possible substitution
for the unhandy Leroy points.
At first glance the new pens gave a feeling of
confidence. They were constructed with typical high quality
German craftsmanship, and they performed to match their
appearance. The ink-containing barrel completely eliminated
the continual refilling required by the Leroy points. Ink flow
was excellent, and the rate of flow could be regulated by exchang-
ing feeds and could be set to match the speed of individual drafts-
men. Cleaning the Pelikan nibs was very simple. A small wire
insert was put in place after use, and a day's supply of used nibs
could be cleaned at the end of the day by simply running water
through them. Most important, the uniformity of line was
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excellent from one point to another, attesting to the superior
manufacture. The Pelikan pens were introduced as standard
equipment to replace the Leroy pens, and the quality of inked
drawing immediately improved.
The Gunther-Wagner Company also produced a
Pelikan ink in several varieties. Samples of these were tested,
and the Pelikan Black No. 17 proved far superior to the Higgins
ink then in use. After the Pelikan ink was substituted for the
Higgins on a regular basis, occasions of graying lines were
experienced. These occurrences were disturbing because
they created lost motion on the draftsman's part to retouch
the gray lines. Experiments proved that by further concentrating
the ink by air evaporation, a much more dense line was achieved.
This practice became a standard procedure each time a new
supply of ink was introduced into the drafting operation. (The
evaporation, however, was hit or miss until Mr. (b)(3)
(b)(6)
future Lab Chief, later approached the problem on a more
scientific basis and established a definite procedure. The Pelikan
ink was evaporated in a specially constructed pan to a specific
gravity of 11.5� minimum to 12.5� maximum Baume. This pro-
cedure consistently resulted in high quality linework).
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b. The Introduction of Plastic as a Drafting
Medium
In the early 1950's the Cartography Division was
introduced to a new vinyl plastic material, trade named Dyrite,
by Mr. Samuel Sachs of the Coast and Geodetic Survey. The
raw base of Dyrite was produced by the Bakelite Corporation
and processed by the Direct Reproduction Corporation of
Brooklyn, New York. Processing the 0.010" thick plastic
involved running the raw, material through the same series of
graining processes used for graining zinc lithographic press-
plates, with glass marbles and sand -- the longer the graining
and the finer the sand, the more delicate the grain. Samples
with various grades of grain were purchased from the New York
company, and a series of tests were begun by the Lab.
At this time, a chemically grained Kodak acetate
base material was being used for compiling and drafting. It
was the only material of its kind at this time. Being nonstable
in nature, it caused constant problems of registration (the exact
matching of one drawing to another) by its contraction and expan-
sion. Dyrite was relatively stable. The minute changes in its
size were insignificant when compared to acetate. Inking tests
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showed that the Pelikan Black No. 17 produced high quality
linework. Dyrite's hard and durable surface made corrections
simple by permitting removal of inked lines with a sharp
X-Acto knife, and this extra advantage would save considerable
drafting time over the difficult-to-correct acetate. Dyrite be-
came the standard medium for drafting and compilation and
replaced all other media. Over the next 15 years several com-
panies introduced competitive products which were tested as
possible replacements for Dyrite. In every instance, Dyrite
proved superior. In 1969, however, a new material, Keuffel & �
Esser Stabilene Drafting Film, which vied favorably with Dyrite,
was put on the market but, because of its extra expense, its
use was still in question at the end of this reporting period.
6. Other Development and Construction Branch
Personnel Become Involved in Experiments
During this period, with production ever increasing,
it became very important not to lose sight of developments at
other agencies. Key Branch personnel made occasional visits
to other organizations to assure that the Division was at least
aware of happenings in the cartographic field beyond the limited
capability of the Lab. Contact with Mr. Sachs' Lab at the
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US Coast and Geodetic Survey (USC&GS) was kept active and
proved to be invaluable. Two new developments were observed
there which later made significant impacts on the Division.
They were a new method of registration by means of a punch
hole and pin and a revolutionary way to produce lines by means
of scribing (engraving) on plastic.
a. Introduction of a Punch Register System
What is registration and why is it so crucial in
cartographic production? In the cartographic production pro-
cess, a manuscript worksheet is compiled which contains in
graphic form all the elements that combine to make up the final
map. The manuscript is usually prepared in colored inks or
pencils to distinguish one element from another, and the work-
sheet can be viewed as a complete map in the "rough" stage of
production. In order to print multiple paper copies of the manu-
script worksheet, the draftsman, following specifications supplied
by the compiler, actually separates each element onto a separate
drawing. For example, the international boundaries are inked on
one drawing, the railroads on another drawing, the coastline and
rivers on another drawing, the open-water areas on another, etc.
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The sucess of the entire system, from compilation to repro-
duction, depends on how accurately the separation drawings
are matched to each other throughout the process, the ultimate
aim being to reproduce the original manuscript on paper in
multiple copies by means of the drawings with every element
in its exact position relative to all other elements.
During the drafting process, each drawing is
affixed with either a series of four corner registration marks
aligned to the corners of the neatline (the fine borderline of a
map) or three cross registration marks positioned at top center
and left and right center beyond the map image for maps with
exceptionally heavy or no borderlines. While acetate was in
use as the prime drafting medium, the continual changing of
the material, because of its instability, forced the draftsmen
to shift these registration marks repeatedly. These marks were
in turn used by the reproduction plant to register the negative
before transfer to pressplate and from pressplate to printed
copy. By the time a long-term map was completed it was any-
one's guess as to how the individual drawings would register on
the final paper-printed copy. When plastic was introduced, the
problem was deemed under control because of the excellent sta-
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bility of the new material and because, once positioned, regis-
tration marks on it rarely had to be shifted.
From the very beginning, separation drawings
were secured to the manuscript and to each other by means of
drafting tape. It was not uncommon in the old days to see every
compiler's and draftsman's work area littered with hundreds of
pieces of drafting tape as a result. In the course of producing
a multicolor map, the draftsman, in performing his job, and
the compiler, in checking the draftsman's work, shifted manu-
script and drawings many, many times to achieve various combina-
tions. Each shift required untaping, reshuffling, and retaping --
a costly and time consuming process. The USC&GS's new punch
system completely eliminated all this lost motion and effort.
The new system involved selecting the number of
sheets of plastic required for a given job and placing them over
the manuscript. With a 1/4" round-hole hand punch, two widely
spaced holes were punched in the open margin at the top and
through all the sheets simultaneously. Two rivets, slightly
larger than the punched holes, were supplied and slipped into
the bottom sheet of any combination. Subsequent sheets were
merely positioned over the protruding rivets, and the pieces
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were in perfect registration with each other. There was no
limit to the amount of juggling and shifting that could take
place without jeopardizing the accuracy of the registration.
Testing and developing in the Division was per-
formed by Mr.
Development and Construction Branch.
then Chief of the (b)(3)
(b)(6)
He initially purchased
a common ticket punch from a local hardware store and found
suitable rivets at a machine shop. When the system was intro-
duced in 1950, the results were immediately felt, not only in
the saving of manpower by eliminating tape registration, but in
the upgraded accuracy of registration of the printed images. A
few years later several commercial hand punches and brass eye-
lets were purchased to improve the operation. This system
remained in use until 1967, when the intermixing of various
plastic base materials having varying degrees of stability forced.
a change.
b. Initial Contact with Scribing
The second major advance in cartographic produc-
tion discovered at USC&GS during this period was plastic scribing.
Mr. Sachs had modified instruments used to engrave on glass by
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substituting ordinary steel phonograph needles for diamond
cutters. The phonograph needles were then honed to the desired
line weights by a series of specially designed sharpening jigs.
Mr. Sachs formulated a paint coating which he whirled onto
sheets of clear vinyl plastic. The manuscript image was then
transferred, in reverse because he was creating a negative,
onto the coated surface by a photographic blueline process.
He then proceeded, as in conventional drafting, to scribe
(engrave) the specified elements on each sheet of plastic. The
quality of the scribed linework was outstanding in its uniformity.
Even at 40X enlargement the linework quality was still excellent.
The implications of this technique were tremendous. It took
many years to train a draftsman to produce top quality ink-drawn
linework which would approach the scribed quality. With scribing,
it would require substantially less time to become expert. Top
draftsmen were still hard to come by, and increasing the quantity
and quality of the Drafting Section was a prime goal.
Shortly after this initial contact in 1952, Mr.
(b)(3)
Deputy Chief of the Development and Constructin(6)
Branch, spent a week at USC&GS working with Mr
learn the details of the new process. He returned
. Sachs to
to his Division
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greatly enthusiastic about the potentials of scribing but with
the recommendation that nothing be done in-house until Mr.
Sachs had refined his system which was to become a revolu-
tionary development in the world of cartography.
7. Recapitulation of the Period
This initial period saw the Cartography Division develop
into a highly professional and specialized thematic mapping
organization. Although not revolutionary, most of the technical
developments during this period were significant contributions
toward the furthering of this professionalism. The production
of cartographic aids in the form of compilation and drafting
guides were major efforts, and the guides stand today because
of the thoroughness of thought and design put into them.
The introduction of Pelikan pens and ink and the discov-
ery of Dyrite plastic as a drafting medium enabled the Drafting
Section to increase both the quality and quantity of its production
while faced with an ever increasing workload.
The punch register system did introduce a minor revo-
lution in the way drawings were handled during the construction
and editing process. Its introduction led to the saving of count-
less hours of drafting and compilation time.
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Although recognized as having future potential, scribing
did not become a significant factor during this period. The
groundwork was laid, however, for a later deep involvement in
the process and for the Cartography Division actually taking the
lead in developing certain phases of the system.
B. Period of Vigorous
Development (1954-1962)
(b)(3)
Takes Over the Cartographic Lai,(b)(6)
After Mr resigned in February 1954, the Car(b)(3)
(b)(6)
graphic Lab remained unoccupied for several months. This was
a period of progress at the major mapping organizations, and it
was imperative to keep the Lab operation active to keep abreast
of these developments. A thorough search of Division personnel
(b)(3)
led to the selection of Mr. to head the Lab. (b)(6)
Mr. ntered the Agency as a cartographic drai(b)(3)
(b)(6)
man in 1950. His success as a draftsman enabled him to move
into the Cartographic Aid Section in the Development and Con-
struction Branch. The Section had been created in 1953 to handle
the numerous jobs that did not fall into the regular production
scheme of the Division. Its personnel had to be technically
skilled and innovative, and Mr. did an excellent job in that (b)(3)
(b)(6)
Section. He moved to his new position in July 1954.
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2. A Broad Lab Program Is Formally Approved
Mr.
began immediately to review the previou(b)(3)
(b)(6)
efforts of the Lab and in a short time, in conjunction with the
Deputy Branch Chief, submitted a challenging program of re-
search and development. This was the first time that a definite
Lab program had ever been established to formalize directions
and goals. The seven-point program called for a major effort
to improve the quality of the final product, increase productivity
by introducing new time-saving techniques and procedures, and
improve the welfare of Division employees by introducing aids
and equipment to ease their burden.
The first point of the program called for establishing a
meaningful schedule of contacts within the cartographic community
to keep abreast of pertinent developments. Contacts were quickly
established with all the local major mapping organizations and pro-
ducers of graphic materials and equipment. The Branch was con-
fident that any new developments, even in their infancy, would be
known by the Lab. It was not uncommon in those days for the Lab
to be testing a new product well before it was put on the market.
Three prime local contacts were developed or expanded: Mr.
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Samuel Sachs*, USC&GS, already a good friend of the Division;
Mr. Lionel Moore, US Geological Survey (USGS), Headquarters
Department; and Mr. John Scott, USGS, Atlantic Field Office.
A few years later, in 1958, Mr.
visited the Aeronautical
Chart and Information Center (ACIC), St. Louis, Missouri,
where he met Mr. Robert Sovar, Chief of the ACIC Cartographic
Lab. This contact became invaluable over the years, and several
subsequent visits were made to St. Louis to work more closely
with Mr. Sovar and his men.
Professional meetings became a valuable source of infor-
mation. and Mr
attended trade fairs, Visual Communica-
tion Congresses, and ACSM Conventions whenever and wherever
they were held.
The second point of the program specified the develop-
ment of new techniques and procedures and the training of Division
personnel to handle them properly. As the search for new ideas
began to pay off and new techniques and materials were discovered,
it became clear that introducing these into the production scheme
* Mr. Sachs left government service around 1956 to become
Vice President of the Direct Reproduction Corp., New York.
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(b)(6)
(b)(3)
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was another problem. The Lab then established a standard
routine of thorough testing under Lab experimental conditions,
production testing under the control of the production unit but
monitored by the Lab, then developing a new procedure or
modifying the then current procedure to accept the change.
As an immediate follow-up, all personnel invoked were trained
in the Lab to properly understand and handle the change.
The third point of the Lab's program proposed the
issuing of reports and Technical Information Bulletins to keep
Division personnel knowledgeable. Quarterly reports were pre-
pared for the Chief of the Cartography Division showing the
status of all projects, listing trips and significant contacts,
and any other points of interest. In an effort to keep Division
personnel informed and to increase general technical knowledge,
a series of Technical Information Bulletins was issued. A wide
range of subjects was covered by these Bulletins, from Soviet
Scribing Plastic (February 1960) to Colored Pencils for Use on
VanDyke Film (March 1964) to Deep-etch vs. Surface Plates
for Map Reproduction (June 1960).
The fourth point stipulated that a comprehensive record
of experiments, successful and unsuccessful, be maintained. In
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contrast to
kept, the
periments.
the previous era when practically no records were
era maintained a comprehensive file of all ex(b)(3)
(b)(6)
The saying at the time was that a full cabinet of
failures and unsuccessful experiments versus a small cabinet
of successes proved that the Development and Construction
Branch was doing its job to the fullest.
The fifth point called for establishing a workable file
of techniques, material, and vendors. The buildup of technical
knowledge and information, to be useful, had to be cataloged for
easy reference and retrieval. The Uniterm filing system was
investigated, found to be ideal for the Division's requirements,
installed and maintained by the Lab.
The sixth point was a commitment to be responsive to
Division needs and introduce cartographic aids and equipment to
further the effectiveness of the production operation. Needs were
continually surveyed, and a number of specifically designed and
constructed aids and pieces of equipment were introduced.to sup-
port the specialized production of thematic maps. These will be
discussed later.
The last point of seven-point program conc((b)(3)1
(b)(6)
the training of new personnel in the Division. The Lab retained
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assisted with training.
Mrs.
the responsibility to train all new personnel. Training given
during this period, however, was more thorough because of
the greater technical knowledge and instruction of the Lab Chief.
3. The Cartographic Lab Becomes a Two-man Section
Although Branch production continued to increase by
virtue of greater demands placed upon the Division and there
was an ubiquitous shortage of drafting support, the Lab was made
a two-man Section between 1955 and 1959. The worth of a pro-
ducing Lab made itself felt in all areas of Division production,
and the value of the additional manpower to support this effort
was fully recognized by Division management.
The added manpower allowed Mr. to allot the (b)(3)
(b)(6)
bulk of his own time to the investigative and reporting areas of
the Lab operation, while his assistant, under his close direction,
performed the tests and production phases of the job and also
(b)(3)
(b)(6)
(1955-56) and Mr.
(1957-59) were both assigned from the Drafting Section. Mrs.
(b)(3)
(b)(6)
prime contribution was her work in developing an((b)(3)
(b)(6)
testing the scribing techniques which were subsequently introduced
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into the production process. She resigned from the Agency in
July 1956. Mr.
major contribution was his complete (b)(3)
(b)(6)
revamping of the symbol files.
During this two-man period, the pressures of production
often forced the Lab assistant to forego his Lab duties and re-
turn to the Drafting Section to support a critical backlog of pro-
duction. Such pressures eventually forced the Lab back to its
one-man status in 1959, when M
Drafting Section to resume full production.
as returned to the (b)(3)
(b)(6)
4. Significant Accomplishments of This Period
a. Scribing Procedures Established for Thematic
Mapping
Although the basic principles of map production
were similar for both topographic and thematic mapping, indivi-
dual phases and the philosophy behind their operation were vastly
different. Scribing was developed by a topographic mapping
agency whose draftsmen worked for weeks, even months, to com-
plete certain complex drawings such as contours and culture. The
basic system developed in the early 1950's was to allow for contin-
uous, long-term production at greater speeds and higher quality
than ink drafting. Thematic mapping construction, in contrast,
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required only relatively short drafting operations. Maps which
required several days for individual drawings were considered
major projects. The topographic draftsman was assigned a
certain area of production, so that scribing drainage, if it were
his assignment, would be his full-time job. The thematic drafts-
man was responsible for the entire production of an assignment;
scribing drainage would be only one part. He would also scribe
the other elements -- boundaries, transportation, etc. -- as well
as prepare tone drawings and place all typography. Therefore,
the fact that a workable system of scribing was developed for
thematic maps, despite the basic problem of sporadic use, must
be considered a major breakthrough.
After Mr. first contact with Mr. Sacidb)(3)
(b)(6)
revolutionary idea in 1952, the development was observed by the
Branch until Mr.
ook over the Lab in 1954. When Mr.(b)(3)
(b)(6)
(b)(3)
(b)(6)
sources about a Swedish scribing technique which sounded very
began his local investigations he heard from several
similar to the USC&GS development and which was being hailed as
a cartographic revolution. As the Lab later learned from Mr.
Sachs, he had encountered extreme difficulty convincing his own
agency and the other major agencies of the value of plastic scribing.
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His demonstrations and time-saving estimates were virtually
ignored. However, the official Swedish mapping organization,
Esselte, had heard of this new development and invited Mr. Sachs
to Stockholm for several weeks to demonstrate the system. The
Swedes immediately recognized the value and potential of scribing,
and they began a changeover from hand-drafting even before Mr.
Sachs left. As the months passed and scribing became accepted
at Esselte, Americans, who often visited this dynamic organization,
brought home stories of the amazing Swedish idea called plastic
scribing, when, in fact, it was an American idea to begin with.
In the mid-1950's scribing was being accepted by all
the major US organizations, its potential finally being recognized.
The Lab procured a set of instruments (gravers), point sharpening
tools, and, of course, the ordinary phonograph needles. Using
coated plastic from USC&GS as a test base (no commercial scrib-
ing material was available at that time), the instruments were put
through a series of experiments.
The most critical part of the system, as it developed,
was sharpening the phonograph needles and then maintaining the
line weight during the scribing operation. A special sharpening
jig which put a precise 450 rake angle at the base of the needle was
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purchased. This beveled needle in turn was placed in another
jig and rotated on a fine sharpening stone until the desired line
weight (width) was achieved. This was by no means the end of
the operation, for the needle required continual examination
and resharpening during the scribing operation.
Contrary to what one would think, the scribed line
became finer, not broader, while the scribing was in operation.
This anomaly occurred because of the coarseness of the coating,
and the draftsman had to repeatedly examine his scribed line with
a microscope to determine when to rehone the point to its original
weight. This procedure was to have an adverse effect on the
acceptance of scribing by the Division.
In early 1955, using the USC&GS coated scribing
plastic and the above needle sharpening techniques, two drawings
of the NIS base map of Chile, drainage and transportation, were
scribed in negative form on an experimental/production basis by
the Lab. The results were exceptional, and, despite the extra
time required to maintain the scribing needles, time tests showed
an appreciable saving in man-hours over ink drafting. The scribed
negatives were then converted to positives by the Reproduction
Plant and became part of the regular job.
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About this time Keuffel & Esser sent the Agency
samples of two new scribing materials they were planning to
introduce. One was a white coating on a new plastic base called
Mylar. The other coating was rust in color on the same base.
Scribing quality on both proved to be excellent.
The Division had a long-established procedure
of compiling and drafting for reduction to final copy size. In
the early days, this was done to refine poor linework and type
quality, but even as skills to produce high quality hand-drafting
increased and type quality improved, the procedure remained
the same. The Lab found that by using the white Scribecoat
(K&E's trade name for its scribing material) and backing it with
black paper, a positive drawing in effect was achieved that could
be handled and photographed the same as a hand-drafted original
(Figure 5). Furthermore, the white material was translucent,
and the draftsman was able to trace the manuscript by subduing
the overhead lighting, thus eliminating the blueline transfer of
the manuscript to the scribing base. This then became the sys-
tem which was recommended and introduced into the construction
of thematic maps.
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A scribing training program for all the draftsmen
and an indoctrination for all compilers was carried out by the
Lab. White scribecoat and several new scribing instruments
were purchased. The Lab spent many weeks sharpening sets
of needles to match the standard ink line weights established by
the Division, and the complete package was turned over to the
Drafting Section as operational -- but the system failed!
The original plan was to introduce scribing slowly,
and it was to be employed only where a marked saving of time
would be achieved. As a result of this decision, scribing was
used only occasionally. This was its downfall, because the drafts-
men found that to maintain their sharpening skills they required
more than a sporadic chance to scribe. They simply lost the
touch and, for the most part, it took more time to regain the
touch than to hand-draft the element in question. Trying to force
the issue did not overcome the problem. The draftsmen built up
a barrier against scribing, and it looked as though this great
potential was being lost.
Scribing limped along for the next two years as a
technique which was used for the exceptional rather than the rou-
tine job. A few draftsmen recognized the value of the technique
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and accepted scribing as a necessary evil, so several jobs
were processed during this period. Even with its faults,
scribing was ideally suited for preparing special straight-line
grids, and it was used whenever a request for one of these was
accepted. One such grid, produced in conjunction with Mr.
the Agency's chief architect, became the base (b)(3)
(b)(6)
on which the new Headquarters Building was planned and de-
signed, and it remains in use today.
During a routine contact with the Engineer Research
and Development Labs at Fort Belvoir, Virginia, in the spring
of 1958, Mr. earned of a new British sapphire scribiri(b)(3)
(b)(6)
cutter being tested there. The cutter had arrived only a few
weeks before, and it had already scribed over 10,000 feet of line
with no change noted in line weight. The find looked promising.
Mr.
ment
checked with Mr. Sachs, who had since left gover(b)(3)
(b)(6)
service to become associated with the Direct Reproduction
Corporation, New York, and discovered that Direct Repro was
already negotiating with the British firm to distribute Astrascribe
(tradename) products in the United States. Mr. Sachs agreed to
send the Division a test packet of gravers and sapphire cutters to
begin tests, and these were received in May 1958.
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1
Results of these tests proved excellent. Each
light weight plastic graver was designed to hold a specific
cutter and, once this was installed and adjusted, required
absolutely no additional maintenance. It was agreed then to
set up one battery of gravers, each holding a standard line
width, and production test the system. The sapphire cutters
did the trick. The draftsmen, not needing to be concerned
with anything more than selecting the proper line weight,
were enthusiastic about the development and looked for instan-
ces to use scribing. The system was a total success and
almost immediately changed a dismal outlook for scribing to
one of immense potential. Several more sets of gravers, in-
cluding swivel gravers to produce lines of over 0.015", were
purchased and prepared by the Lab. These were in turn intro-
duced into the operation.
The first year of sapphire cutter use saw an
increase in scribing from almost zero to approximately 30 per-
cent of all linework produced. The following five-year period
saw a further increase to well over 50 percent. By 1965, vir-
tually all single lines were produced by scribing, except lines
over the 0.032" weight (approximately 10 percent of the total)
which were still inked by Pelikan pens.
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In 1959 the Lab came up with the idea of multiple
lines scribed by specially milled cutters. Double-lined scales
and neatline and border combinations (Figure 6) were obtained
from special cutters which Direct Repro ordered from Great
Britain.
Many man-hours were saved by the use of the
rigid, swivel, and combination-line sapphire cutters and white
scribecoat to perform positive scribing, but more important,
training a draftsman to achieve the highest quality workmanship
was accomplished in a matter of weeks rather than the years it
formerly took to train a draftsman to produce quality work by
ink drafting. The thematic mapping production process had
truly witnessed a revolutionary development. The Agency's
Cartography Division was the first in the United States to intro-
duce sapphire scribing into its operation. Even after many years
of marketing, and as late as 1968, the major mapping organiza-
tions retained the steel phonograph needles. Their reason for
not converting was that of expense, but each of these organiza-
tions had several persons assigned full time to sharpen needles
and maintain instruments, itself a costly, time-consuming opera-
tion. Agency cartographers and draftsmen regarded this as a
case of false economy.
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Several attempts were made during the early
sapphire scribing days to introduce negative scribing, but they
were unsuccessful because of the difficulty of transferring the
manuscript image to the scribing material and the need to
handle typography as additional positives when scribing nega-
tives. These difficulties were eventually overcome when K&E
began to market yellow scribecoat. The Lab tested the possi-
bility of performing scribing on this translucent material,
which was in effect negative scribing because the coating was
actinically opaque, then applying type directly to the yellow scribe-
coat as was done with the white scribecoat. The reproduction
negative was obtained by photographing the yellow scribecoat
through a filter to drop the color and hold the linework and type.
The process worked but there was no real advantage
over the positive scribing until efforts were made to process
more jobs on a 1:1 basis, i.e. compile, draft, and reproduce to
paper copies at the same size, with no reduction of the image.
The old adage, reduce to refine, was no longer applicable in the
age of scribing. Extremely high quality linework could be achieved
at any complexity with any combination of line weights. Therefore,
to realize the full advantage of scribing, which was primarily to
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produce a negative, the concept of 1:1 became established,and,
as an added advantage, it saved substantial compilation and
drafting time by reducing the amount of lines which had to be
compiled and drafted.
Under the 1:1 process the yellow scribecoat was
handled the same as described above. The type negative was
obtained by photographing the image through a filter, the scribed
lines disappearing against the copy board. The original scribed
negative and the photographed name negative were then combined
by double exposure to the press plate. This procedure added to
the reproduction time, but there was a considerable overall
saving of Agency manpower.
The yellow scribecoat technique prevailed until
1960 when K&E, which was rapidly taking over the commercial
scribing market, introduced a new rust scribecoat containing a
diazo sensitized coating (exposed by ultraviolet light and developed
in ammonia fumes). Subsequent Lab tests determined that by
modifying the compilation technique from inks to pencils, the
manuscript image could be readily transferred to the new Hello
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scribecoat (Figure 7) by exposure from black light fluorescent
lamps and developed in a "pickle jar".*
This was a period of intense activity in the Lab,
and several major developments were underway concurrently.
Of significance to the introduction of the Helio (sensitized)
scribecoat were the facts that intermediate reproduction facilities
were being added to the Division's production process, and
recommendations to switch from pen-and-ink to pencils had
already been made to compilation to ease the burder there. The
processes involved in handling Helio scribecoat were very close
to being available at that time. These will be discussed in detail
later as separate developments.
Helio scribecoat changed the entire scribing proce-
dure by mid-1961. The manuscript prepared by the compiler
was transferred in reverse by the diazo process. The draftsman
proceeded to scribe the individual elements in negative form as
specified. At this point, film positives were created from the
* The name given to any portable container in which diazo ma-
terials are developed by adding a few drops of liquid ammonia
and inserting material. Development is controlled by visual
inspection.
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scribed negatives on polystyrene film via the regular repro-
duction process or on Kodak washoff film by the draftsman
(this process will be described later). The set of positives
was then completed by the draftsman with the addition of type
and any other items specified. The result was a set of positive
originals which were forwarded to the reproduction plant for
processing under normal procedures. In essence, the scribed
negatives were only a means toward achieving the set of posi-
tives, but the time saved and the quality obtained made the
scribing process extremely valuable. This procedure remained
basically unchanged throughout the remainder of this reporting
period except for one advancement in wide-line scribing which
will be detailed later.
Scribing was indeed one of the historic advances
made by the Division, and it became one of the prime factors
permitting the Division to increase its production significantly
without an increase in personnel. The most important advantages
of scribing, as it was modified to support thematic map produc-
tion were: it was at least three times faster than ink drafting;
the quality of the final product was greatly enhanced by the excel-
lence of the linework produced; the making of corrections and
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changes was simplified; it allowed for the new concept of 1:1
production which saved untold man-hours; and it was much easier
to train personnel and allowed the Division to lower somewhat
its recruitment standards and procure draftsmen who would not
have been able to achieve the more difficult ink drafting level of
competence.
1
One disadvantage in the new mechanical scribing
approach to thematic mapping was the elimination of a certain
natural visual character of coastlines and drainage which could
only be achieved by ink drafting. This loss, however, was recog-
nized only by the cartographers and had no apparent effect on the
map users.
b. The Introduction of Reproduction Support
Facilities
The need for some sort of in-house reproduction
facilities was felt by the Cartography Division as early as the mid-
1950's because of the timelag in obtaining preliminary support
through the normal reproduction plant channels. This need inten-
sified as cartographic techniques expanded and as the requirement
to support current intelligence demands increased and deadlines
narrowed. As Division production mounted, so did the need for
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1
1
1
1
preliminary reproduction support from the reproduction plant.
There were requirements by compilation for composite film
positives on which to compile new substantive thematic data.
There was also a need by compilation for reduction or enlarge-
ment of source materials to bring them to compilation scale.
Shaded relief work required the processing of bluelines. The
Drafting Section required film positives of scribed negatives
and the processing of Peel Coats to produce tone drawings.
Current intelligence required immediate response for film posi-
tives on which to produce new graphics and the processing of
3M Color Keys to produce vugraph slides. The variety grew
yearly, but the understanding for the need lessened on the part
of the reproduction plant, which began to develop an unsympa-
thetic attitude. The reason was that the "minor" requests by
the Division, no matter how critical, cut into the normal pro-
cessing procedures of final reproduction work. The Cartography
Division tried in vain to persuade the Printing Services Division
to establish a small separate unit to handle these intermediate
phases of map production in order to ease the disruption at the
Plant and to give the cartographers the service they felt they
required.
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The idea of establishing reproduction facilities in
the Division was supported by all production personnel of the
(b)(3)
Division but was opposed by one key individual. Mr.
(b)(6)
who had moved up to the position of Deputy (b)(3)
(b)(6)
Division Chief, felt strongly that the Division should not attempt
to impinge on Printing Services Division's responsibilities and
that all efforts should be put into convincing PSD to make the
necessary adjustments to support the Division.
the Lab was directed by Mr.
Nevertheless,
(b)(3)
who rep1aci(b)(6)
Mr. as Chief of the Development and Construction(b)(3)
(b)(6)
Branch, to keep the problem in mind and its eyes and ears open
for possible solutions.
On his 1958 trip to ACIC, Mr. observed (b)(3)
(b)(6)
development which was watched closely for the next two years.
Mr. Sovar of the ACIC Cartographic Lab had developed the pre-
decessor to the K&E Helio scribecoat. He had taken regular,
unsensitized scribecoat and hand applied a diazo coating. His
overall idea, however, included a simple "black box" with ultra-
violet fluorescent tubes which could be operated by the draftsman
to produce his own scribing image from the manuscript rather
than process the request through the ACIC reproduction plant.
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The problem was similar to the one the Division faced. Mr.
Sovar's black box was only in the drawing stage in 1958, but
two years later he had several in operation.
In 1960 the Direct Reproduction Corporation intro-
duced a daylight handled material called Striprite used to create
tone drawings mechanically. Until this time, all tonal areas
were produced by outlining the area with a fine ink line then
filling the area by brush with a turpentine opaque or by the use
of Rubylith, a mylar base material with a coating that could be
removed after cutting. These processes were tedious and time
consuming but were commonly accepted as the only methods to
perform the operation.
Striprite was 'developed to be used in direct as soci,
ation with scribing. If an open-water tone area was desired, for
example, the draftsman would scribe only the coastline portion
of the drainage. He would then make or have made a film posi-
tive. The positive would in turn be exposed to Striprite by a
short ultraviolet light exposure. Two simple develop-and-etch
steps produced a duplicate of the original scribed negative. At
this point, the draftsman literally picked up the portion of the
Striprite he did not require. The coating was easily peeled off
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the vinyl base by a sharp knife, thereby leaving a perfectly
registered, completed tone drawing. The implication was
enormous.
Also in 1960 K&E introduced its Helio scribecoat
which required an ultraviolet light exposure as the first step in
a two-step process. The introduction of this material would
greatly enhance the scribing operation.
At about the same time, the Eugene Dietzgen
Company began selling VanDyke film. This film was produced
on a mylar base for stability and was exposed through a negative
by an ultraviolet light source and simply developed in running
water. Lab tests of the processed material determined that
VanDyke positives were suitable for exposure to Striprite and
could also be used as intermediate positives for processing new
work.
The above three processes could have added another
dimension of production capability to the Cartography Division,
(b)(3)
but not without the missing key, the ultraviolet light source. (b)(6)
1
and Mr.
endeavored to convince Mr. Sachs at the
1960 ACSM Convention, where his company was exhibiting its
products, that the Direct Reproduction Corporation should manu-
(b)(3)
(b)(6)
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facture and market a black box similar to the one Mr. Sovar
had added to the ACIC production operation. The Direct Repro
Box could be sold primarily to small organizations with the
same production problems that faced the Cartography Division.
Mr. Sachs took up the idea, and the exposure unit was ready for
demonstration and sale in the fall of 1960. The next step was to
convince Mr. that the purchase of a black box for (b)(3)
(b)(6)
Division was imperative to maintain technical growth and expan-
sion.
A demonstration of the Direct Repro Box, which in-
volved the processing of several of the company's materials, was
set up at the company's recently opened Falls Church, Virginia,
office. Mr.
was invited to attend, in addition to Mr.
stration went off beautifully with the
Chief of the Cartography Divi(b)(3)
(b)(6)
The del(b)(3)
(b)(6)
new U. V. exposure unit
performing flawlessly. Striprites were processed and peeled;
dye proofs, using another company product, were made; and diazo
images were exposed and developed. The advantages of the Divi-
sion installing such a system were manifest, and Mr.
approved the "go-ahead".
(b)(3)
(b)(6)
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Mr.
resistance was finally over-
come, and the black box exposure unit was installed in the
Lab early in 1961. The unit was constructed of wood and
contained a battery of ultraviolet fluorescent lamps. Material
to be exposed was placed on a clear-glass surface which
covered the lamps, and a heavy sponge-covered hinged lid was
pulled down onto the material and latched for pressure. A
side-mounted timer controlled the length of exposure. The
Helio scribecoat system was put into operation immediately.
Striprite (Figure 8) was purchased, and it too was made stand-
ard stock after a procedure was established for its use and per-
sonnel were trained. Dietzgen VanDyke film also became a
standard item. Furthermore, shortly after installation of the
new unit, the Terrain Section began preparing its bluelines via
the black box and obtaining better control than had been avail-
able through the regular reproduction system.
The installation of the black box, even in this rela-
tively primitive state, created a sudden feeling of pride through-
out the Division, which was no longer totally dependent on
another component to support its activities. The draftsmen,
who were closest to the development, quickly accepted the new
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procedures. Not only was the time it took them to process a
map through Drafting further reduced, but their involvement in
performing the new support operations also made their jobs
more responsible and hence more interesting and challenging.
(b)(3)
The system remained relatively unchanged unti(D)(6)
the early days of th�
ra when demands on the system
began to outweigh its capabilities, and a major expansion of the
facilities took place.
c. Pencil Compilation Techniques
Thematic map compilation did not witness the revo-
lutionary changes over the years that the construction side did.
Most of the changes that occurred were made to accommodate
technical advances in map construction. During the 1940's and
for most of the 1950's, compilers used Dr. Martin's and Artone
colored inks to prepare compilation manuscripts. The procedure
had become so ingrained that no one suggested an alternate
method even though several compilers had a difficult time achieving
acceptable quality ink linework. Relatively more time went into
the techniques of preparing an esthetically acceptable manuscript
than into the substantive accuracy of the project. This is not to
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imply that substantive accuracy was ignored but rather that
mechanical techniques took too much time. Around 1958, when
scribing made its impact, the inked manuscripts became increas-
ingly difficult to use. Compilers were compelled to put tighter
detail on their manuscripts for the 1:1 concept, and the drafts-
men were finding this detail diffused and difficult to follow when
scribing through the scribe coating. Tests were made in the
Lab involving transfer of the inked lines to the scribecoat using
the ACIC pre-Helio scribecoat method, but the light burned
through the transparent ink lines and a poor image resulted.
The Lab then recommended that a thorough study be made of
switching from pen-and-ink to pencils for all compilation. Most
(b)(3)
compilers were enthusiastic about the possible changeover. (b)(6)
Mr.
spent many days searching out all the
makes and varieties of colored pencils he could purchase at local
art supply and stationary dealers. Systematic series of tests
were devised for hardness, durability, ease of sharpening, and
opacity, and every color of every make was put through the ex-
perimentation. The tests showed that Eagle Verithin colored
pencils gave the best all-around performance, and they were
recommended for immediate use. Also recommended to accom-
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pany the new system were electric pencil sharpeners, located
at strategic positions within the compilation area, to save hand
sharpening time.
After several production tests the system was
adopted as standard operating procedure. The results were
gratifying to all concerned. The compiler was completely re-
lieved of his unwarranted efforts to produce quality linework by
the difficult to use pen-and-ink method, and his rate of output
increased perceptibly. The draftsman received a much finer,
denser line to follow, which made his job easier and required
fewer follow-up corrections.
With the introduction of Helio scribecoat in 1961,
the Eagle Verithins proved excellent in diazo line transfer.
However, a new hierarchy of colors had to be established because
of the range of opacity of different colors (Figure 9). Normally,.
blue was used to compile coastlines and drainage, but blue made
a relatively poor diazo line transfer (this proved true in all
varieties of pencils). Because coastlines and drainage were
prime elements, it was mandatory that they appear solid and
sharp on the scribecoat for ease of scribing. Therefore, green
was selected as an appropriate color to use. This color selection
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procedure was followed for the other elements which made up
the manuscript worksheet, according to their relative importance.
For example, yellow was highly recommended for boundaries
because of its transferability, whereas prior to this time yellow
would have been outlawed for such an important role.
Several reexaminations were made over the next
ten years as new pencils were introduced, but Eagle Verithin
always proved to be the best.
In 1963, a similar study was made with ballpoint
pens in an effort to further reduce the compilers' problems in
preparing a manuscript. Even though diazo transfer was not
quite as high in quality as with the Eagle Verithins, a set of ball-
point pens -- a combination of BIG and Lindy -- was recommended
for use. Ballpoint compilation became the rage for a short time,
but gradually almost all compilers returned to colored pencils.
They discovered that, with continuous use of the pens, the ink
blobbed at the point and left smudges if not cleaned repeatedly.
When this occurred, maintaining a consistent line became diffi-
cult, and the manuscript took on a less professional appearance.
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d. Revamping the Symbol Files
Division symbol holdings steadily increased after
the 1952 reorganization of the files and the issuance of the Symbol
Guide. As new problems arose, new symbols were designed and
added,and, as expedients, intermediate sizes were produced from
available symbols to satisfy special requests. Symbols were avail-
able in a wide variety of abstract and pictorial forms and sizes.
They were also available in a selection of contrasting colors. As
a result, they were widely used throughout the Agency as an aid in
graphically communicating a broad range of subjects. For example,
an analyst wishing to portray quickly the disposition of forces along
a country border could easily apply the appropriate number of
large red triangles to a copy of a printed map obtained from the
library in a very few minutes. So many outside-the-Division cus-
tomers were serviced that the Cartography Division became better
known as the "Symbol Division" by many Agency personnel. By
1958 the file had again become unmanageable, and the Lab was
again directed to put it in order. A significant upgrading of
standards had occurred during the intervening six-year period,and
it was found on close examination that the early symbol quality
left much to be desired compared to the current quality. After
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careful consideration, it was decided to reissue the old sym-
bols at current standards and to update the complete system.
Mr.
vvho had just become the second Lab man,
was assigned this task in 1958-59. The massive undertaking
involved redrawing most of the original symbols developed
during OSS days and then progressing through the various reduc-
tions to achieve the full range of sizes. Several hundred new
panels were produced, which were in turn contracted to the US
Government Printing Office (GPO) for processing. At GPO the
panels were converted to photo engravings on 0.0152" zinc. On
their return to the Division, the engravings were microscopically
examined for quality, then routed to the Type Section for printing.
After printing the copy was again examined for quality before being
filed. At this point in the procedure the Branch was fully confident
that any symbol which had progressed to this stage was well within
the quality standards which had been established.
In conjunction with the remaking of the symbols
themselves, a new filing system was put into operation. The sys-
tem was designed for easy access by the draftsman and also to
make filing copy and reviewing the supply much simpler than under
the former system. Accompanying the file was a wing-panel dis-
play board which exhibited every size of every symbol on file.
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In addition, a master catalog was produced which
became the "Bible" on symbols. This was kept up-to-date and
represented the complete catalog of symbol holdings. To com-
plete the operation, a duplicate of the original master catalog
was prepared, and one full sheet of every symbol was collected
for the Cartography Division's Vital Storage Area.
Toward the end of this reporting period it was
recognized that another major updating of the symbol files was
urgently needed. Very little new symbol work had been accom-
plished since the 1958-59 revamping. New concepts in thematic
mapping had outmoded many of the old symbols, and new repre-
sentations, both abstract and pictorial, were sorely lacking.
However, the chanc:e to repeat the 1958-59 renovation seemed
very unlikely because of inadequate manpower.
e. Type Placement Guide
There was an unwritten understanding throughout
the entire history of the Cartography Division that the draftsman
had the final responsibility for type placement. By virtue of
performing this operation repeatedly he was supposed to have
the most experience and the best judgment in properly positioning
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the toponymy of a map in an unambiguous and esthetically
pleasing manner. This supposition was not entirely true, for
new draftsmen were expected to have the same ability as those
with many years of experience. Furthermore, the basic prin-
ciples of type placement, although covered thoroughly in the
Division training program, were often misunderstood by new
and old draftsmen alike. The problem lay in the fact that
there were no written guidelines which clearly and precisely
stated the principles of good type placement.
The problem came to a head around 1960 when
the Division was developing a high degree of sophistication in
its approach to thematic map production. Conflicts arose over
the question, "What is good type placement?" New ad hoc prin-
ciples were created to press a point, and eventually the problem
became critical. The Development and Construction Branch, in
an effort to alleviate the confusion, recommended the production
of a Division Type Placement Guide which would present in words
and graphics the type placement principles to be practiced in the
Division. The recommendation was approved, and the Lab was
assigned the project.
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Mr. began a thorough investigation into (b)(3)
(b)(6)
the type placement practices and came up with several guide
samples produced by other agencies. They all told "how"
but not "why", so the Division's guide had to be developed
from bottom up.
Hundreds of Division maps were carefully studied,
and the major areas of concern were isolated. Each of these
was developed to show the wrong way as well as the right way
to place a particular name. In several cases, full-color ren-
ditions had to be produced to demonstrate color overprint
problems. Overall, a highly scientific approach was taken
toward the problem. Production of the Guide, with its numerous
illustrations, took over a year and a half on a time-available
basis. It required many roughs, many consultations with drafts-
men and compilers, and many discussions with cartographers
outside the Division. The final Guide was a monumental achieve-
ment and was the first and only publication of its kind produced
by the Division.
The Type Placement Guide did much to formalize
type placement procedures in the Division. Compilers felt more
assured that agreed principles were being followed, and all drafts-
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men had the same handy reference which ruled on clearing
up problem areas.
5. Other Accomplishments During This Period
Many relatively minor developments were introduced
1
during the
Era which, when totalled, added to the overall
efficiency of the compilation and construction processes of
thematic mapping. They are, however, too numerous to dis-
cuss in detail in this report.* Six developments are, neverthe-
less, worthy of mention.
a. Accent Sheets
The production of maps of foreign countries
involved the use, for the most part, of US Board on Geographic
Names recommendations for place-name spellings. For many
countries this meant the additional requirement to include
diacritical marks to indicate pronunciation -- a major problem
for the draftsman who, in many instances, spent as much time
adding diacritics by hand as it took to position the names. On
* Details of these developments can be found in the Record
Center Archival Files, OBGI, Cartography Division, Item 71-437.
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some countries this became a serious handicap but one that
could not be ignored or avoided.
At relatively great expense, accented letters
were produced by American Type Founders of Elizabeth, New
Jersey, for 8 and 10 point News Gothic, the style and sizes
most commonly used for city names. This was of some help
in easing the pressure, but it did not eliminate the problem
because the cost to expand accents to other styles and sizes
was prohibitive.
To solve this problem, the Lab in 1954 began the
production of "accent sheets", as they were called in the
Division. Preliminary study showed that the Division's type
holdings could be divided into two family groups, serif and
sans-serif, with each subdivided into light and heavy. Conse-
quently, four sheets were planned. Thorough investigation went
into the design of each diacritical mark, and large masters
were produced following the scheme used for the production of
symbols. Each sheet carried a range of sizes from 6 pt. to
24 pt. The four original panels were then converted to photo
engravings, printed on standard celanese, and filed. Extreme
quality control was followed during the entire process, and the
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completed sheets exactly matched the printed type on which
they were to be placed (Figure 10).
The production of these accent sheets eliminated
the slow hand-drafting formerly required and brought about a
uniformity of end product never before achieved.
b. Plastic Cutting Table
The introduction of plastic as a compilation and
drafting base brought about a major change in the production
process (II, A, 5,b), but it created a new problem -- that of
cutting the material. Dyrite was stable and durable but, when
cut with scissors, it shattered, leaving a jagged and dangerous
edge. Many alternative methods were tried but the one that
proved best, cutting against a steel straightedge, was the most
time consuming.
At about this time an advertisement for the
Metoschmit cutter, designed to cut plastics, was noted in a
German publication received from the US Geographic Attache.
The basic principle of the cutter involved a circular cutting
knife which rode along a steel edge. The cutter seemed to be
the solution to the problem, but because of its foreign manu-
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facture and a "Buy American" attitude that was prevalent
at the time, it was very difficult to arrange a purchase.
Persistence paid off, however, and the cutter finally arrived
from Germany in late 1954.
Although very simple in construction, its quality
was extremely high, and it cut Dyrite with a felt-smooth edge.
A table was designed and built incorporating the cutter into
one end, and another production problem was solved. (The
cutter is still being used today, cutting the various plastics
now in stock as effectively as it did in 1954. )
c. Craftsman Line-up Table
The relatively simple task of laying out a "square"
map (all four corners exactly 900) often became a problem for
compilers and draftsmen when a very large map was in process
or if extreme care was not exercised in handling the triangles
and straightedges. Considerable time was wasted, many times
at the final stages of a job, adjusting the neatlines and borders
of a map when it was recognized that the original manuscript
had not been squared and the draftsman had not checked it be-
fore drafting.
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In 1957 the Lab recommended the purchase of
a Craftsman Line-up Table, a precision instrument for
squaring drawings. Although designed primarily for the
lithographic industry, it would work equally as well for car-
tography. The recommendation to spend the $2, 000 was
approved, and the piece of equipment was purchased and
installed. From that time on layout ceased to be a problem.
The compiler used the table to construct his manuscript out-
line, and the draftsman followed up by using the table to ink
or scribe the neatlines and borders.
The Craftsman Line-up Table was equipped
with an automatic spacing mechanism which also enabled the
operator to create grids of extreme accuracy. Special grids,
many very tightly spaced, which would have required weeks
to produce by hand, were constructed in a matter of hours
by using the machine.
d. Japanese Penpoint
Penpoints for freehand fine-line inking were
taken for granted. The use of the Hunt 102 and 104 and the
Esterbrook 356 had been established in the 1940's, and no
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thought was ever given to replacing them because they always
produced excellently. In 1959, however, among cartographic
items received from the Far East Geographic Attache was a
sample card of penpoints produced by the Japanese firm,
Toyo Seiko Co., Ltd. of Tokyo. The Lab tested them as a
matter of course and to its amazement found one to be superior
to any penpoint then in use. It was the Nikko 659. Further
tests proved the point to be easier to use, more durable, and
more consistent in line weight and quality than the stock penpoints.
A dispatch to the Geographic Attache to purchase a
supply produced a response that the penpoints could only be
purchased by the 100 gross lot. With scribing imminent and
the anticipated declining use of pen and ink in the offing, this
amount would have been overwhelming. Luckily the Attache
was able to convince the company to sell him 25 gross, enough
to last the Division for many years.
The Nikko 659 soon became the basic penpoint
for all fine-line drafting, increasing quality and easing drafting
training as it did so.
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e. Rubylith
The preparation of tone drawings by the pen-and-
ink/opaque method was very tedious and time-consuming. By
this method, the draftsman was forced to first outline the area
with a fine ink line, then fill in with a turpentine opaque solu-
tion by sable brush. The more intricate the details of the area
to be toned, the greater the increase in time it took to perform
the operation.
A new material produced by the Ulano Company,
called Rubylith, was observed at a 1959 Lithographic Trade
Fair. The material had been developed and introduced for use
in the photo lithographic industry to prepare negative masks.
Rubylith consisted of a clear mylar base with a ruby red cut-
table coating. When cut through to the base, the coating could
be easily removed. It was recognized immediately as a feasible
substitute for hand-drafted tone drawings. Tests proved suc-
cessful, and Rubylith quickly became a standard material for
drafting use. Rubylith did not fully replace the hand-drafted
drawings, however. It was still found to be more efficient and
practical to use the pen-and-ink/opaque method on very small
areas where the use of Rubylith became too frustrating for the
draftsman.
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Later, the Ulano Company introduced Amberlith,
which was the same as Rubylith except that it was amber in
color. Amberlith then became the standard because the lighter
color was much easier to use over colored manuscripts. Again,
in the case of the Rubylith and Amberlith, a saving of consider-
able production time was realized, further reducing the length
of time it took to produce a map.
f. Conversion of Drafting Tables to Light Tables
The disappointing failure of electroluminescence
in 1958 (II, B, 6) spurred an effort to replace the bulky light
tables which were difficult to work against and space consuming.
A portable light box, Porta-trace, marketed by the Ozalid
Company, had been purchased for general Division use but was
usually kept in the Lab on one of the Stacormatic drafting tables.
In early 1961, while working on the box-on-table combination,
Mr.
had the idea of incorporating the Porta-trace un(b)(3)
(b)(6)
into the drawing table top and converting it to a light table.
Plans were drawn, a piece of sandblasted plate glass was pur-
chased, and the first unit was converted for the Division by the
Department of State's Carpenter Shop. The converted table
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was an immediate success, especially to the research com-
pilers and the Special Support Branch cartographers. The
decision was then made to convert all drafting tables, and a
total of 35 were eventually processed.
As a direct result, several large light tables
were disposed of, and the Division was afforded a better and
more efficient use of floor space in the new Headquarters
Building. (The Drafting Section was not affected by this
changeover, and the draftsmen continued to work over the
cumbersome tables until 1971 when a more suitable table was
found for the draftsmen..)
6. Electroluminescence: A Memorable Failure
Although the experiment with electroluminescence
failed, through no fault of the Cartographic Lab, it is worth
describing because of the nature of the problem and the impli-
cations which it carried.
Working over and through translucent compilation
and drafting materials required the use of light tables in the
Cartography Division. These tables were large, bulky tubs
which contained batteries of fluorescent lamps and were sur-
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faced with sandblasted plate glass. They occupied consider-
able space, they were difficult to work against, and they were
dangerous when the glass tops were accidentally broken. On�
one occasion, a draftsman working on a large job actually
fell through one of the large tables and narrowly missed seri-
ous injury. Replacing the tables was for years a hopeful wish,
but there was no suitable substitute.
In 1956 the Lamp Division of the Westinghouse Corpor-
ation announced experiments with a new light source --
electroluminescence. The announcement described a flat
surface lamp, only slightly thicker than window glass, consum-
ing little power, and generating practically no heat. The
advantages of such a light source were immediately recognized
in the Cartography Division. This flat piece of glass which
would transform any flat surface into a "light table" would
effect a tremendous saving in space as well as provide a more
comfortable working area for the cartographer or draftsman.
Westinghouse was contacted in February 1957, and
representatives of the Division were invited to attend a demon-
stration of "Rayescent Lamps", Westinghouse's trade name
for its new light source. It was explained that the generation of
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light by the phenomenon of electroluminescence was entirely
different from conventional methods. There were no heated
filaments, gas filled tubes, or metallic vapors. Instead, a
thin layer of phosphor was sandwiched between two conductive
plates; one made of a specially coated glass and the other of
metal. When an alternating current was applied to the con-
ductor plates, the phosphors were excited by the current and
light was produced, the color of the light emitted depending
upon the phosphor used. At the time of the demonstration,
Westinghouse had developed a green lamp which operated at
600 volts and a frequency of 3.000 cycles per second. The low-
level illumination produced was unsuitable for cartographic
use, but the Westinghouse engineers were confident that they
would soon significantly increase the brilliance.
By the fall of 1957 progress had been made to the point
where a new panel, operating at 600 V and 60 cps, gave the
same illumination as the earlier panel at 3,000 cps. Several
1-foot-square panels to operate at 230V were purchased by
the Lab at that time to demonstrate the principle, but because
of the unavailability of suitable power equipment, no practical
experiments were conducted.
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Through a regular contact with Mr. Lionel Moore
of the USGS Cartographic Lab, the Division learned that they
were also experimenting with Rayescent panels and had been
deeply involved with their Electronics Section in developing
power equipment. It turned out that USGS was much further
advanced in their development of the system than was We
and they offered to supply the Agency with 18" x 24"
lamps and powerpacks to operate at 600V and 60 cps, their
recommendation for maximum efficiency. Five large lamps
with powerpacks were ordered for Division experimentation.
In addition, two 12" x 12" panels with powerpacks designed to
transform European current (230 V, 5 cps) to 600 V, 400 cps
were ordered, and one was eventually sent to the Geographic
Attache in Europe for demonstration purposes.
In October 1958, Rayescent lamps and powerpacks
were put into use in all Branches of the Division on an experi-
mental/production basis. The lamps did not meet with imme-
diate approval from the compilers who needed a brighter
light over which to compile, and the panels were returned to
the Lab for powerpack modification to increase the frequency.
The Drafting Section and the Special Support Branch, however,
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reported the lamps to be very satisfactory, though they too
would have welcomed a brighter light. The lamps were in
operation eight hours a day for more than three months, and
future prospects seemed very encouraging. Plans were al-
ready being made to eliminate all light tables in the Division's
area in the new Headquarters Building.
Just as the new system looked most promising, one
of the units developed a short circuit which exploded the panel
and sent glass chips flying. Most fortunately the cartographer
was at lunch, and no injury was sustained. Of course, the
experiment was immediately shelved pending an investigation
into the cause of the malfunction. The cause was never dis-
covered, the system never became operational, and Westing-
house never marketed Raye scent.
7. The Era Ends
In April 1962, Mr.
was offered an opportunit0)(3)
(b)(6)
for advancement and transferred to NPIC, leaving the Carto-
graphic Lab virtually inactive for over a year. His tenure
had been an outstanding period of research and development
for the Cartography Division, which saw major changes in
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(b)(3)
(b)(6)
Division personnel was made to find a replacement for the Lab.
No candidate was found, so the search turned outward. Infor-
mal contacts were made with other mapping agencies to inform
them of the vacancy. Three cartographers applied for the
position and after a series of interviews, Mr.
of the Army Map Service (AIVIS) was selected. He
reported for duty in April 1963.
Mr.
operating procedures, an enormous increase in production,
and a marked upgrading of quality.
C.
The Era: A Period of
Renewed Activity
(b)(3)
(1963-1964)
(b)(6)
1. Mr.
Takes Over Lab on
(b)(3)
Transfer From the Army Map Service
(b)(6)
After Mr.
departure, a thorough search of
(b)(3)
(b)(6)
had been with AMS for more than 20 (b)(3)
(b)(6)
years and had a thorough background in topographic mapping
techniques and procedures. It took him a few months to become
familiar with thematic mapping procedures .as they were handled
by the Cartography Division, especially the informality of operation.
His first order of business was to re-establish contacts
with the various local mapping organizations and the second, to
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prepare an updated program for the Lab. These he accom-
plished without delay. The Lab program covered the identi-
cal points that were established in 1954 (II, B, 2) but with major
emphasis on streamlining and increasing the efficiency of the
construction operation. Mr.
approached the challei(b)(3)
(b)(6)
with the disadvantage of not having had much previous experience
in thematic mapping.
2. Significant Accomplishments of This Period
a. Expansion of Reproduction Support Facilities
The Lab area, having been designated the location
of the UV Black Box exposure unit, became the center of acti-
vity for reproduction support work. Scribing was expanding
rapidly, which meant that the processing of Helio scribecoats
increased correspondingly. Contacts with commercial sales-
men gave some indications that new daylight handled materials
were being developed which would eventually benefit the Division.
Meanwhile, quality standards were rising, and it was felt that
the black box and "pickle jar" systems had reached their limits.
In the fall of 1963, Mr.
began a study to determine
requirements for upgrading the Division's facilities to support
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the anticipated buildup in reproduction work. His recom-
mendation included the adoption of three basic elements:
1) the Ozalid Streamliner 100, a 30" diazo processor; 2) the
30" x 40" nuArc Flip-Top Platemaker, with vacuum frame and
carbon arc light source; and 3) the 6' Leedal processing sink.
These three basic units would support a variety of operations
in a minimum of space. The recommendations were approved,
and the items were purchased and installed by mid-1964. This
complete unit gave the Division a new dimension of support
and allowed its cartographers and draftsmen to become more
self-reliant and less dependent on the reproduction plant.
The Ozalid machine allowed for the in-house
production of Vugraph slides and enabled the Division to respond
more rapidly to support top-level briefings. The Ozalid was
also used to prepare quick diazo proofs directly from original
drawings, a luxury never before experienced. The contact
printer not only exposed Striprite and Helio scribecoats,
which were processed through the developing chamber of the
Ozalid, but also became the focal point for the exposure of
Wash-Off film and Duplication Scribecoat which will be dis-
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An interesting sidelight developed while Division
representatives were working with the nuArc salesman. The
nuArc Flip-Top Platemaker was purely a piece of lithographic
reproduction equipment, as were the Ozalid and the processing
sink, and as such they had to be approved for purchase by the
Printing Services Division (PSD). There was some concern
in the Cartography Division that PSD would not give this approv-
al because they might not fully understand the use to which
these items would be put in cartographic production. To
counter this possibility, the nuArc Company was ready to pre-
pare a new name plate for its printer, calling it the Carto-
graphic Flip-Top Printer. Fortunately, an advanced reading
from PSD proved the feeling was unjustified. Approval was
given, and the printer was not renamed.
b. Kodak Kodagraph Wash-Off Film
In late 1963, the Eastman Kodak Company intro-
duced a new film which was to cause major repercussions in
the Cartography Division. This new film, Kodagraph Wash-
Off, was daylight handled and therefore did not require a
darkroom for processing. In fact, processing was so simple
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the first announcements were thought to be in error. The
film required a ten-second exposure in the vacuum printer,
one minute's submersion in an activator, then was washed
in warm water and dried -- all this in ordinary room light.
Moreover, the film was on Estar, the most stable of Kodak's
bases. The material seemed ideal for Division use, and a
roll of the film was ordered. Tests proved beyond a doubt
that Kodagraph Wash-Off film should be added to the pro-
cesses available for Division use. The resultant wash-off
positives (Figure 11) were of extremely high quality -- equal
to any processed by PSD. As a result, Dietzgen VanDyke
film was dropped.
The addition of Wash-Off film made an immediate
difference in the Division's operations. The Special Support
Branch was able to produce positives from available negatives
in a matter of minutes in response to urgent current intelli-
gence requests. The Drafting Section made its own positives
from scribecoats, thus eliminating the long delays encountered
when these were processed via PSD. Job scheduling became
easier, and calendar time to produce an average job was cut
significantly. The Terrain Section processed its own bluelines
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by means of a Wash-Off negative, also eliminating production
delays. Composite Wash-Off positives, made by multiple
exposures, were used for editing scribed drawings. In
other words, the material was so versatile and its processing
was so simple that Kodagraph Wash-Off film found its way
into every phase of production. By the end of this reporting
period the Division was using 10, 000 sheets of this film a year.
1
c. Cronaflex Film for Compilation
Other than switching from ink to pencils there
had been no change in manuscript preparation since Dyrite
was introduced in the early 1950's. Even though a high quality
pencil image was being produced on Dyrite, its grain, which
was ideal for final drafting, rapidly wore down finely sharpened
colored pencils, thereby requiring the compiler to spend an
inordinate amount of time sharpening pencils. A better compila-
tion base had therefore been on the Lab's "most wanted" list
for many years. In 1964, the Dupont Corporation added
Cronaflex U/C to its line of Cronaflex films. This new materi-
al was stable because of its mylar base and contained a very
fine chemically produced grain. It proved to be the ideal
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replacement for Dyrite. Not only did the Cronaflex U/C
surface allow the compiler longer periods of time between
pencil sharpenings, but it also produced more brilliant lines,
enabling the draftsman to perceive them more readily. The
Cronaflex U/C manuscript image also made a higher quality
diazo transfer to the Helio Scribecoat, its finer grain being
less diffusing.
d. Experimentation with Silk Screening
In the late 1950's and early 1960's, an increas-
ing demand was put on the Division to provide supporting
maps in very small quantity for special intelligence reports
-- three to five copies being the usual requirement. Pro-
ducing the maps, which involved the overprinting of existing
Agency, Army, or Air Force maps, was a routine matter,
but obtaining the few copies became a problem. These
requests were almost always accompanied by extremely
short deadlines, and the decision whether to produce hand
copies or to have PSD overprint the existing maps had to be
made on the basis of the manpower situation in both Divisions
at the time. A possible solution was to employ the silk screen
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process, which seemed to lend itself to this type of low-run
requirement.
Mr.
began a series of tests and exper(b)(3)
(b)(6)
ments with equipment borrowed from the Office of Logistics
Visual Aids Group. Again the nuArc printer became the focal
point as the drafted originals were exposed to Ulano Hi-fi
stencils which were water developed and then adhered to the
silk screen. Transferring the image was accomplished in the
usual manner of applying paint to the screen and squeegeeing
the paint through the open areas of the screen onto the paper
map. Two problems had to be solved, however: registering
the overprint with the printed map and finding a transparent
paint which would not obliterate the base map detail.
A simple adjustable rig was built onto which the
printed map was taped. The silk screen frame was also se-
cured to the rig, but adjustments were added to enable the
operator to shift the screen in all directions without detaching
it. A few quick transfer tests put the overprinted image in its
exact position on the map.
Finding a transparent paint was more difficult
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locally proved to be more opaque than transparent. Finally,
after numerous trials and errors, a truly transparent paint,
Naz-dar Transparent Silk Screen paint, was purchased from
a Baltimore, Maryland, supply house. The system was con-
sidered operational in mid-1964, but, unfortunately, at this
precise time the requirements to produce this type of map
support completely ceased. The system was never employed
although it was kept in readiness for several years thereafter.
3. The Cartographic Lab Again Becomes Dormant
Mr.
decided in late 1964 that he was more (b)(3)
(b)(6)
production than research and development oriented, so he
applied for the position of Chief of the Drafting Section which
had been vacated. He was accepted and in November 1964
left the Lab to take over his new assignment.
D. Research and Development Continues Informally
and Sporadically (1965-1970)
1. An Intensive Search for a Lab Man Is Fruitless
But Research and Development Do Not Stop
A repeat of the exercise of 1962, when Mr.
departed the Division,began. Division personnel were canvassed,
and the word was informally passed to the major mapping organi-
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zations, but to no avail. No one could be found who had the
depth of training and experience and the strong desire to
perform research and development work that were required.
The search actually continued for several years until Division
management decided in 1968,. with the reluctant concurrence
of the Branch Chief, to eliminate the Cartographic Lab slot
and transfer it to the newly developing Automation Section
of the Branch.
Eliminating the Lab position in no way eliminated the
need for research and development. The Division had become
too accustomed, over the previous 17 years, to being on top
of thematic cartographic techniques for this situation to sud-
denly come to an end. It was decided, within the Branch, that
the Technical Support Branch management would make itself
responsible for keeping abreast of developments in the field.
Although it was informal, a program developed whereby key
Branch personnel became deliberately involved in R&D. This
involvement took the form of out-of-town survey trips, local
visits, and attendance at professional meetings. Only develop-
ments of a relatively major nature received follow-up R&D
work in the Branch and these only by special assignment.
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Local contacts were maintained by telephone, and
visits were made when developments warranted. Several
out-of-town survey trips were made which included foreign (b)(3)
(b)(6)
and domestic organizations. In the Spring of 1967, Mr.
1
Chief of the Branch, attended the
(b)(1)
(b)(3)
During 1968, Mr.
Deputy Branch Chief,(b)(3)
(b)(6)
surveyed US mapping programs and visited eight organizations
from coast-to-coast and Mr.
tions east of the Mississippi. In 1969, Mr.
visited three organiza-(b)(3)
(b)(6)
Chief of (b)(3)
(b)(6)
the Special Projects Section, visited five mapping and adver-
tising organizations in the New York area, and the following
year, 1970, Mr. Chief of the Cartographic Const3(b)(3)
(b)(6)
tion Section, visited four organizations in the east and mid-west.
All VCC and ACSM conventions were also attended.
During this period R&D was handled on an unavoidably
haphazard basis. Reluctantly, most ideas picked up as a result
of the above visits were recorded without follow-up because of
lack of manpower, but developments and trends were at least
known. Division management was always well aware of the con-
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flict between R&D and production although, because of the
critical nature of demands on the Division during this period,
decisions almost always leaned toward carrying on production.
There were, however, four significant developments which
could not be overlooked, and time was found to investigate
and introduce them into the overall system.
2. Significant Accomplishments During This Period
a. Duplication Scribecoat
From the earliest days of the Division's history,
one particular problem arose repeatedly -- that of compiling
and drafting exact duplicate images. For example, if a
page layout included several small insets of a country, each
to present a different theme, the basic country outlines,
coastline, drainage, and boundaries were expected to be
exactly the same in every detail, even though the thematic data
varied. No matter how carefully the compiler produced his
manuscript and how painstakingly the draftsman followed his
lines, the final printed maps always showed variances. The
problem was solved in 1966 when Keuffel & Esser developed
Duplication Scribecoat.
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Duplication Scribecoat was a mylar base material
with a diazo sensitized scribing coating. Exposure onto the
material was made in the nuArc vacuum frame through a
regular scribed negative, such as Helio scribecoat. The
exposed material was then passed through the developing cham-
ber of the Ozalid machine. The result was a duplicate negative.
Multiple exposures. of the scribed negative would result in
multiple duplicates on the Duplication Scribecoat (Figure 12).
The multiple exposures could be preplanned for position, and
a step-and-repeat process could produce any number of images,
all exactly the same.
The new material was first observed at the 1966
ACSM Convention. Samples were procured, and Mr. (b)(3)
(b)(6)
a draftsman who later became Chief of the Automation
Section, was assigned to perform a series of tests and produc-
tion experiments. He developed a procedure which involved an
interplay between the compiler and draftsman.
In this new procedure, the compiler prepared a
layout showing precisely where he wanted the images duplicated
and then compiled a single line manuscript of the map base.
This set was, in turn, given to the draftsman who scribed the
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map image only one time. He exposed the scribed negative
in the positions determined by the compiler using the Duplica-
tion Scribecoat. The processed negative was then transferred
to Kodagraph Wash-Off film. This produced a positive which
contained the proper number of identical images in their
exact positions. This positive was then returned to the com-
piler who, on a piece of Cronaflex U/C, completed his manu-
script. In the final drafting stage the multiple image positive
became the original drawing. Here again, not only was an
efficient procedure evolved that saved both compilation and
drafting manpower, but in addition the printed copy reflected
a more professional approach.
b. Slot Register System
The punch (hole) register system devised in the
late 1940's remained unchanged until 1967. Until the early
1960's, Dyrite plastic served as the compilation and drafting
base, and drafting was still primarily a hand-inking operation.
As new techniques developed and new materials were added to
the construction process, problems began to arise concerning
registration -- things were not registering as they should. 'It
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became apparent that the cause was the intermixing of base
materials -- vinyl, polystyrene, and mylar -- each with its
own coefficient of expansion and contraction. The variances
were enough, at their extremes, to throw the materials out
of register, and the two registration holes, being stationary,
caused buckling when this occurred.
The ACIC in St. Louis had under development
at this time , a new system of registration based on the radiating
slot theory. The principle involved three oval slots, (l/4" x
1/2"), one at the top and one each left and right, all radiating
from the center of the sheet. Round or oval register pins
were inserted in the slots, and other drawings, similarly
slotted, were placed in position on the pins. Even though the
pins moved in the slots, the drawings were immovable with
respect to one another. In this situation any minute change in
size of the material was radiated uniformly in all directions,
and the drawings always appeared to be in perfect registration.
Differences could be microscopically calculated, but they were
well within thematic mapping accuracy standards. The system
was watched closely for more than a year after it became opera-
tional at ACIC.
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In the early spring of 1967, Mr.
attendi(b)(3)
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an "If-we-had-it-to-do-over-again" meeting at ACIC and noted
the many modifications they recommended for a second-genera-
tion punch. Following that, several sheets of all materials used
by the Division were slotted for production tests. The tests
went well, and in April 1967 a slot-register punch which included
most of the ACIC recommendations was ordered from the
Moffett Precision Company, Batavia, Illinois. The system was
installed in late 1967, and it revolutionized the handling of
materials in the Division as well as solving existing registration
problems (Figure 13).
All materials were prepunched before being distri-
buted so that no compiler or draftsman had to concern himself
with the task. It became the primary job of summer employees
to punch thousands of sheets of materials to provide a supply
which lasted throughout most of the year. Cutting of stock plas-
tic had been eliminated years before when the Division limited
its usage to four basic sizes which were purchased precut.*
Combinations of standard size materials could be built up at will,
* Standard sheet sizes are 11" x 14", 17" x 21", 24" x 30",
and 30!' x 40".
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beginning with the compiler's manuscript. Additional draw-
ings added at any stage of the process caused no problem.
Scribecoats for negative scribing could be flip-flopped and
still register perfectly.
The system was expanded to include photographic
film processed by PSD. The film was slot punched by the
Cartography Division and stored at PSD. When a slotted
positive was required, it was noted on the reproduction re-
quest. The returned positive then fit into the system and could
be handled with other materials.
The slot register system, by eliminating regis-
tration problems and allowing for the prepunching of materials,
saved at least 5 percent of the normal production time, thus
increasing production capability.
c. Hollow-tipped Scribing Cutters
On his coast-to-coast survey trip in 1968, Mr.
discovered hollow-tipped scribing cutters at ACIC. (b)(3)
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They had been developed to scribe heavy lines on the automatic
plotter. Normal hand scribing of heavy lines was accomplished
by the swivel graver and chisel cutters, and line weights of
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0.024" and over were very difficult to handle. The new cutter,
designed by Mr. Robert Sicking of ACIC, was rigid with a round
hollow carbide tipped base. Mr.
tested the cutters,(b)(3)
(b)(6)
which had been inserted in regular rigid engravers, and found
them extremely easy to use at line weights up to 0.045". Follow-
ing detail was also much more accurate than with the swivel
gravers. He immediately adapted these new cutters as replace-
ments for the chisel cutters although ACIC had no plans to
make this change.
The addition of the hollow-tipped cutters overcame .
the last bit of resistance in the Division toward scribing, allow-
ing the full range of lines to be produced with relative ease.
d. Diatype Photocomposing Machine
The Type Section was established during OSS days,
and, except for the addition of a new Vandercook 4T Proving
Press in 1947 and an occasional replacement of worn foundry
type, the unit's operation remained unchanged until 1970. This
stagnation was not deliberate. As early as December 1955 state-
ments regarding the search for a photocomposing machine to
replace the handset type system began appearing in Branch
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monthly reports. For several years in the early 1960's money
was carried in the budget to cover the purchase of a photocom-
posing system. Many leads were followed, and many demon-
strations were attended but no product matched the high quality
and low cost desired. Photocomposing had already replaced
hand type setting at the larger mapping agencies but the cost
of these systems, Harris Intertype and Merganthaler Linofilrn,
was in the six-figure bracket. The Division wished to spend
only $5, 000.
Late in 1969, on a visit to New York in connection
with the Division's consultant program, Mr was intro-
duced to a new German photocomposing system by Mr. Aaron
Burns, President of TypoGraphics, Inc. The system was
Diatype. The machine was the size of a typewriter, produced
extremely high quality 4 point through 38 point type from a single
glass disc, had a superior lens system, exposed directly onto
paper or film, and cost $5, 000. A demonstration of the system,
distributed in the United States by the Royal Zenith Corporation,
New Hyde Park, New York, was later held in the Division, and
all personnel were given a chance to view the machine in opera-
tion. The type was indeed top quality, matching any photo
system regardless of cost.
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Mr. ubmitted a proposal for a comple(b)(3)
(b)(6)
Diatype system together with recommendations for phasing out
handset type. In addition to the Diatype, the proposal recom-
mended the purchase of an automatic film processor, a small
nuArc vacuum printer with a pinpoint light source, and a
Stat King camera (a self-contained camera unit which would be
used to produce type over 38 point, the limit of the Diatype).
Two prime reasons were given for converting from hand set to
photocomposing: the average quality of Diatype far exceeded
the highest quality of handset copy, and type output would
double when the full system was in operation. Phase I of the
plan was approved, and the first Diatype machine (Figure 14)
was installed in April 1970. Sixteen discs representing 16
different type styles were included with the initial purchase.
By the end of this reporting period the Diatype photocomposing
machine and its makeshift darkroom in the Type Section had
surpassed even the most optimistic expectations. In less than
six months, more than half of all the type produced by the
Section was done by the Diatype system. The outlook for pro-
ceeding to Phase II, the purchase of a film processor, looked
bright for FY 72.
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The Diatype system, even when fully implemented,
will not eliminate the Vandercook Press. Although no type
would be printed, the Division and the Agency still have need for
the millions of individual symbols printed each year on the press.
3. Maintaining a Position of Technical Leadership
Becomes Increasingly Difficult
By mid-1970, a new technical revolution was rampart
in cartography. To maintain production levels, major mapping
organizations were putting added efforts into research and devel-
opment in order to offset the loss of personnel by reductions-in-
force. Automation was flourishing. If there was ever a period
when the Cartography Division needed a dynamic Cartographic
Lab, it was then. But developments were moving the Technical
Support Branch in an opposite direction which even precluded
the Branch Staff's continuation of its minor involvement in R&D..
A Division reorganization in April 1970 had placed
additional responsibilities on the Branch. The Automation Sec-
tion was increased in size, and it siphoned off personnel from
the Drafting Section. Impending new plotter and digitizing sys-
tems would most likely take away more draftsmen. The Special
Projects Section was doubled in size with the assignment of new
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blocks of work, and it required additional guidance and super-
vision. Additional Branch assignments which involved the
Branch and Deputy Branch Chiefs further diluted any R&D
effort.
Advances in the Division's automated cartography
program alone warranted immediate R&D work to develop new
technical procedures which would involve the interplay of
compilers, draftsmen, and the computer-plotter. There was
a growing fear among those closely involved in automation
production and a strong possibility that the full potential of the
system would not be realized because of this lack. By the end
of 1970 much thought but very little effort was being applied
to research and development work. The prospect of finding
blocks of time, even for special R&D assignments, looked
bleak for the future.
E. Ad hoc Procedures
Throughout its history, the Cartography Division was con-
tinually faced with demands which seemed impossible to meet
because of the nature of the requests or the deadlines imposed.
Time after time, however, these "impossible" requests were
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fulfilled through the combined efforts of many inventive and re-
sourceful Division personnel who improvised, took shortcuts,
manipulated standard procedures, and developed ad hoc proce-
dures to solve the problems. The Division's excellent reputation,
in large part, was built on its ability to respond to these special
requests. Division management, after accepting the requests, al-
ways turned the problems over to the production level administra-
tors and allowed them to proceed with minimum interference and
red tape. This policy was probably the primary reason for the
success the Division enjoyed when confronted with such problems.
These challenges forced developments. Photo-drafting, a
means of obtaining images by reducing or enlarging portions of
available original or negative drawings and then splicing them
into plastic, was devised in the early 1950's as an expedient to
meet certain urgent requests. This procedure was presented by
an industrial graphics specialist at the Visual Communications
Congress in 1963 as a "new" method to obtain drawings without
the normal redrafting or rescribing. The term "map-mechanic"
was coined during this period, and it reflected, in many cases,
a true description of the operation performed. Duties and re-
sponsibilities expanded and diversified to the point where, in
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1970, the cartographic draftsman position was officially
changed to cartographic technician, a position which covered
a much broader range of cartographic production.
Any and all means were employed to satisfy map requests.
Many times it was necessary to contact other mapping organi-
zations which performed operations not available within the
Agency. It would be impossible to list all the special jobs
processed over the years in this ad hoc manner, but two pro-
jects are described to give an idea of the problems involved.
1. Khe Sanh Model
During the Khe Sanh crisis in Vietnam in 1968 the
Special Assistant for Vietnam Affairs (SAVA) requested the
Division to prepare a model for briefing the White House and
the DCI. Preliminary meetings with SAVA determined that the
model would be built on the AMS 1:50,000 Series L7014 of
Vietnam, and AMS file negatives of the desired area were
immediately requested. The Division had no model-making
capabilities to construct such a detailed model in multiple
copies,but it had, on several occasions, requested model pro-
duction from the Naval Reconnaisance and Technical Support
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1
Center (NRTSC). A contact with NRTSC indicated that they were
willing to construct the base model and mold plastic duplicates,
but they would be unable to produce the .watercoat dye image
proofs of the maps to be molded.
The number of copies required had snowballed, and as
of that moment over 50 copies were planned for use in Washington
and Vietnam. The Agency's reproduction plant had facilities
to produce watercoat dye proofs, but not in this quantity. This
led to another contact with AMS which agreed to make the map
images and added 25 copies for Army use.
The negatives of the AMS 1:50,000 maps were used to
produce film positives. As several 1:50, 000 map sheets were
involved, the Khe Sanh area was obtained by splicing the
several positives together into a new single image. Transpor-
tation data for the entire map area and the details around the Khe
Sanh base were updated, and the drawings were so adjusted. A
separate contour image was scribed for NRTSC to use to con-
struct the model, and the spliced drawings were sent to AMS
to prepare the 75 proofs on plastic. Both organizations met
their deadlines, and two weeks later the dye proofs were trans-
ferred from AMS to NRTSC for molding. Less than one month
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after SAVA had levied his request, completed plastic models,
40" x 42" in size and in multiple color, were ready for briefing.
(b)(1)
(b)(3)
Their prime map base, over which they planned opera-
tions, was the Air Force Operational Navigation Chart (ONC),
1:1,000,000. For greater accuracy, the ONC's were produced
in 80 bands, each band having its own set of standard parallels.
Although this made each map sheet of a band more accurate
than would be the case with using one set of standard parallels
for a large region or continent, sheets from one band could not
be matched with sheets of an adjacent band because of the differ-
1
ent curvature of their parallels.
continually causing problems for
area of collection spanned two ONC sheets.
This feature of the ONC's was
(b)(1)e
(b)(3)
Their question
was, "Could anything be done to solve this problem?".
Appropriate Division personnel were assigned to re-
view the problem, and an ad hoc procedure was developed
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which resulted in a new map produced over a s(b)(1)
(b)(3)
week period.
The basic plan was to extend one map approximately
10 inches north to cover the desired area of the other map.
The problem facing the Division was that of accurately extend-
ing the Lambert conformal conic projection, then making
the extension appear as part of the original map. Duplicate
sets of positives of the two ONC's were ordered from ACIC
through Detachment 1 in Arlington, Virginia. Having the posi-
tives meant that virtually no work was required on the one
sheet which was used intact. The positives of the upper sheets
were used in compilation as will be explained.
In 1969 the Division automated cartography program,
in the form of Automap, was making great strides, so it was
relatively easy to automatically machine plot a very accurate
projection extension. This plotted projection was stripped into
position on a composite positive of the basic map elements
(drainage, boundaries, names, transportation, and contours)
and given to the compiler. The ACIC positives of the northern
sheet were then photographically changed in size to fit 10 grid
squares of the extended projection. The map elements were
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then hand-transferred 10 square at a time to a sheet of Crona-
flex over the composite positive, which became the manuscript
of the new map extension, thus transforming the data from one
series of standard parallels to the other.
While the compilation was underway, contact was made
with the Naval Oceanographic Office (NAVOCEANO) to obtain
their support on a new process they had recently developed
from one they had picked up from USGS. The new process was
called Scribe Etch, and NAVOCEANO was using it in their
chart revision program where major portions of charts to be
revised remained intact. The process produced an etched image
on yellow scribecoat onto which the revised manuscript was
transferred by a dye process. Scribing of the linework was then
performed, and the revised areas blended perfectly with the
unchanged areas. NAVOCEANO agreed to produce the Scribe
Etch scribecoats the Division needed to produce its new map.
Once the compilation of the extended area was com-
pleted, a negative of the bottom ONC was produced by PSD and
sent to NAVOCEANO for Scribe Etch processing. In the mean-
while, the new compilation was sent to PSD for negative photo-
graphy, and preparations were made to transfer this image to
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the yellow scribecoats on their receipt from the Navy. This
process required approximately two weeks to complete.
The Scribe Etch scribecoats were then scribed,
element by element, by the draftsmen, matching the ACIC line
weights. Even with close examination it was almost impossible
to determine where the ACIC map had been extended. To make
the match complete, the typography portions of the upper sheet
were transferred to stripping film (a thin based, wax-backed
photographic material), and the ACIC's actual type was then
positioned. Hysometric (equal elevations bands) tones were
then produced from the newly scribed contours by the Striprite
method, and these were stripped into exact position on the tone
positives of the bottom sheet. As a final step, ACIC printing
inks were procured from St. Louis, and the final printing
printed by PSD, appeared to be an ACI0)(3)
produced ONC. Aras jubilant over the results, and a(fher
(b)3)
"impossible" request was fulfilled by the ingenuity of Agency
cartographers.
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III. Conclusion
Thematic cartographic technical developments would not
have advanced as forcefully and rapidly as they did without the
continued pressing need for thematic maps and associated
graphics to support Agency requirements. From the earliest
days of the Cartography Division's history, demands always
appeared to be beyond the Division's capabilities. The situa-
tion grew more serious during .and after Admiral Raborn's
directorship when graphic-oriented Directors spurred the
demand for more cartographic and graphic support. The Divi-
sion met these challenges by concentrating on ways and means
to increase production, and cartographic research and develop-
ment was the avenue taken to achieve this goal. The Cartographic
Lab played a major role in this effort by introducing new aids,
techniques, procedures, and equipment to evolve a more
efficient production scheme. As a result, greater production
at quicker response time was realized, together with an increase
in quality. Production records clearly reflect the success the
Division had in its efforts. In FY 1952, 970 items were com-
pleted compared to 5640 items in FY 1970, with a relatively
minor increase in production personnel during the same period.
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In the 1960's, support to current intelligence demands
for instantaneous response continued to grow. New techniques
kept pace with this growth, and by the end of this reporting
period the Division was able to respond to the highest level
requests at a moment's notice, primarily by its in-house tech-
nical support capabilities. The Agency's Cartography Division
became the envy of other Intelligence Community organizations,
especially DIA, which had great difficulty producing adequate
support graphics in the time allotted and in the highly profess-
ional manner desired.
The Cartography Division's research and development
efforts always enjoyed full backing and support from Office and
Division management. However, the success of R&D efforts
depended almost entirely on the dynamism and ingenuity of the
persons carrying the responsibility at any given time.
The most significant period of development occurred from
1954 to f964 with a year break between 1962 and 1963. During
this period, major advances in scribing and preliminary repro-
duction support facilities were introduced which completely
changed the manner in which thematic map production was handled.
A great effort was made during this period to keep abreast of
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developments in cartography and in the related fields of lithogra-
phy and commercial graphics. Lab personnel were given full
freedom and encouragement to develop with the minimum of
management restrictions, a situation unlike that in other large
mapping organizations where red tape and management restraints
were deterrents to full personal involvement.
Many technical improvements introduced to the Division were
expansions or modifications of developments found at other organi-
zations, where larger research and development staffs had per-
formed most of the preliminary work. This enabled the Cartogra-
phy Division to take advantage of a much larger R&D effort than it
ever could have expended on its own.
In 1968, when the Cartographic Lab was abolished for the want
of a suitable Lab man, research and development slowed to a crawl
with only the staff of the Technical Support Branch involved. The
following two-year period saw several significant developments
added to the Division's procedures but only through the major efforts
of a few persons who worked in the time to follow up on these finds.
In 1970, a Division reorganization increased the production respon-
sibilities of the Technical Support Branch, and even the meager
amount of time previously allotted to R&D was drastically cut.
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At the end of this reporting period the Cartography Division
was in serious need of a revitalization of its research and devel-
opment effort. Although the basic technical framework was
solid, this position would not hold forever, and there were areas
which had become antiquated from years of inattention. One of
these was the symbol file which had become outdated and did not
meet the newly developing design concepts of thematic cartography.
The advent of automated cartography, with its tremendous potential
to support the Division's needs, was also causing serious concern
because of the lack of manpower for developing techniques and pro-
cedures to utilize plotter and digitizer output to its full potential.
For many years the Cartography Division had enjoyed a position
of unquestioned leadership in the technical thematic cartography
field. By late 1970 the outlook for research and development was
bleak, and this position of leadership was in jeopardy of being lost.
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Comment on Sources
The research on this report was hampered by the lack of
complete administrative and technical files for the reporting
period. Fortunately, the author lived through most of the
period and was closely associated with the technical aspects
of thematic map production. His memory and personal files
filled in many details missing from official records. A con-
siderable amount of pertinent data was extracted from Carto-
graphy Division monthly reports, January 1945 through December
1959, the Cartographic Lab experimental file which covered
the period from July 1954 through October 1964, * and numerous
trip reports. Interviews with present and former Cartography
Division personnel accounted for another significant bloc of
information. The most important of these was the series of
interviews with Mr.
ormer Division
Chief, who was very technically oriented and encouraged many
of the developments cited.
* Records Center Archival File, OBGI, Cartography Division,
Item 71-437.
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I.EROY PEN GAUGE
50ri REDUCTION 25% REDUCTION
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NEWS GOTHIC
Average Number of
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16 MEDITERRANEAN CASPIAN URAL'SK PHILIPPINES MOSCOW ATLANTIC OCEAN LONDON NORWEGIA
20 Mediterranean Caspian Ural'sk Philippines Moscow Atlantic Ocean London Norwegian Sea 2468050001
8 Point
14 MEDITERRANEAN CASPIAN URAL'SK PHILIPPINES MOSCOW ATLANTIC OCEAN LONDOI
18 Mediterranean Caspian Ural'sk Philippines Moscow Atlantic Ocean London Norwegian S 2
10 Point
11 MEDITERRANEAN CASPIAN URAL'SK PHILIPPINES MOSCOW ATLANTIC 0
14 Mediterranean Caspian Ural'sk Philippines Moscow Atlantic Ocean L 2568
12 Point
10 MEDITERRANEAN CASPIAN URAL'SK PHILIPPINES MOSCOW ATL
13 Mediterranean Caspian Ural'sk Philippines Moscow Atlantic Oc 46'
14 Point
8 MEDITERRANEAN CASPIAN URAL'SK PHILIPPINES MO!
11 Mediterranean Caspian Ural'sk Philippines Moscow A 24
18 Point
7 MEDITERRANEAN CASPIAN URAL'SK PHILIF
9 Mediterranean Caspian Ural'sk Philippin 246,
24 Point
5.5
MEDITERRANEAN CASPIAN URAL'S
7 Mediterranean Caspian Ural'sk P24!
4.5
5.5
30 Point
MEDITERRANEAN CASPIAN L
Mediterranean Caspian U246:
Figure 2. Sample type guide
115
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Approved for Release: 2019/04/19 006729281
� -
GREEN No. 2�W-65
ZIP-A-TONES
4 62
3
68B
RIzaiyeh
2
43
34 � �::::�'.
79
36
F-6
8B 66
. � 1 . . � � . � .
. � . � . � � � . � �
� � . . � � � � .
. � � . � � � � � � �
................
................
97
41
1
'� �������������� 1111
g � � � � � � � � � � � g
78
24R
8.5�:�:�:�:�:�:�:�:-:�: 01
....�...�.............
' ����������������������
12 p//7 / /
zaiye
I I
RIzaiyeh
51
27RI
A
14 111111111111111
MuIla Sani
RA N
Ma,.hur
E I? S I A .V
U 1'
Figure 3. Sample color guide
Marbacheh
HALFTONE SCREENS
1
2
3
RULED SCREENS
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Approved for Release: 2019/04/19 006729281
SYMBOLS
A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
D D' E E' F G
�
�
0
�
0 0
0
� �
0 0 0 �
0 0
0
Figure 4. Sample symbol guide
- 117 -
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Approved for Release: 2019/04/19 006729281
Figure 5. K & E Scribecoat (white). Note
how left half of scribed image appears
as inked lines when backed with black.
118
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Approved for Release: 2019/04/19 006729281
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
1
I
1
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Figure 6. Samples of various combina-
tions of double lines produced by one
stroke of specially milled sapphire cutters.
119
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Figure 7. K & E Hello Scribecoat (rust).
Manuscript image is transferred to Helio
scribecoat by carbon arc exposure and am-
monia vapor development. Image is scribed
in reverse to produce a true negative.
1
120
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Approved for Release: 2019/04/19 006729281
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
1
Figure 8. Direct Reproduction Striprite.
Negative or positive is produced by strip-
ping coating from base. One half of sample
is stripped to demonstrate the technique.
121
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Cita!
- -
ClOn eir0.0.1
151044(
Figure 9. Top sample shows pencil lines as
they appear on manuscript. Bottom sample
shows quality of line produced when trans-
ferred to scribecoat. Note the illogical
results�yellow a better image than red.
122
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ACCENTS
GROUP 3�For use with GO, Ionic, and CGSI.
NOTE: In each case use next size smaller accent with CGSI.
6 Point
8 Point
10 Point
12 Point
14 Point
18 Point
0 00
00
0
0 0
< < <
< <
<
< <
�
(014( ,,,,, 41( ((I ( 4 44 4 c 4 4 4 (((( ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ( 4 I < 4 �
1 1 1 I
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 / / / 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I
(1 1 1 1 1 1 ( (
I I I 111111
1 1 1 1 ( 1
11111111
4 < < < ( 4 < 4 ( < < < 4 < < < < < 4 < < < 4 4 < < < ( < ( < < < < < < < <
( ( 1 ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ((((((((
111111141