NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE SURVEY 71; GUATEMALA; THE SOCIETY

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CONFIDENTIAL
71/GS/S
Guaternal
March 1973
NATIONAL INTEL
CONFIDENTIAL
NO FOREIGN DISSEM
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The NIS is National Intelligence and may not be re-
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For NIS containing unclassified material, however, the
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l%
This chapter was prepared for the NIS under
the general supervision of the Central Intelligence
Agency by the Bureau of Economic; Analysis, Social.
and Economic Statistics Administration, Depart-
ment of Commerce. Research was substantially
c
completed by Octobcr 1972,
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GUATEMALA
CONTENTS
This general Survey supersedes the one dated Jan.
uari/ 1969, copies of tchich .should he destroved
A. Introduction
1
Cultural turd economic disparities as obstacles to
social integration and mutimial unity.
13. Structure and characteristics of society
4
1, EtImic and cultural groups
4
I'ndinos and Indians; prowss of ac�,ultura-
tion; divisions within the two major groups.
2. Social organization
a. Class
Influence on the class structure of the
dud nature of society; stratification among
Ladinos.
b. Famil and kinship groupings
10
Traditional family cobesivetness; wrakcn-
ir.r{ of ties among migrants to urban areas;
godparenthood system; marriage.
3, Community life
12
Patterns of organization and activity.
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Page
1, VahtcIS an(] attitudes
13
Uldino 111141 lodia11 value syslrnrs; Ilttttndrs
toward lrttional life,
37
C. Population
15
Demographic trends till([ trroblems.
38
1, Size au(] (listriblttiou
17
Comic dAll; density and geogral)hical dislri-
38
btttion; urban -rural distribution; migrntioo,
2. Ag(, -sex structure
22
Depot I'll" burden; sex ratio; to�bIn -rural
difl'erencrs,
1). Societal aspects of labor
22
I. The Ixcople and work
22
Limited onrploynt,rlt opportunitiv%; high rates
Of un -,1101 ymt�nl and uuderrnlploylnont; tim-
43
tutles toward labor and fuctors JI'vethlg prod-
uctivity; work conditions�
2. Labor legislatiolt
24
Labor cotle standards poorly enforced,
3, L,abol and lnaual;cnletlt
25
Developrruvnt of tilt, labor movement; n111trage-
ntt,11t associations.
47
E. Living conditions, welfare services, and
social problems
27
1. Levels of living;
27
C.rncrally among the lowest in Latin America;
deterioration of conditions for many.
2. Social services
30
n. Developmental activities
30
Limited effectiveness of governmental
efforts,
11, Welfare services
32
Little progress in development of n com-
prehensive socinl insuram:e program,
3. Social problems
33
Violcll- e and crime; drug abuse; alcoholism,
55
F. Health
Low levels of health and sanitation.
1. Environmental stinitat'ion
34
Water supplies; waste disposal; food handling,
2. Common diseases
35
Principal ailments and causes of (lentil.
Page
3. Dial atld tulh�ition
30
Low 1111tritional Ilwels; cldorit, intake,
-l. Medical porsoll1w] lulu ftteiliti+'s
37
Irradectnate 41111lutily, quality, and distribution,
C. Religion
38
0eucrul role mill intportance,
1. Honlitu Catholic Clltlrell
38
Attempts by Spanish to convert Indflms; syn
cretic pl%letices; anticlericalism mml chnrrh�
stale rctntions; organiratfoll told activitft,s of
tilt chill-ch.
2, Protestant churches aucl other groups
42
Leading dolloulfnatiorls; missfonary activity;
)ews; nuubcltrvcrts.
It, Education
43
Weak role, despite immovrrmmnts in for cclucn-
tional system.
L Thu people and education
43
llttelleutul +I life illlllled to it snu;ll minority.
2. Edocatiood system
44
Chief chai coal itr'oblems,
3. CYovel�Itl ono till(] e(]tletitioll
47
Level of govcrmnrnt impolvrinrat: efforts at
educatiomrl reform,
1. Artistic and intellectual expression
48
Indian and European influences; folk arts; fine
arts; arcllftec'ture, literature: r11trsic and t11111m,
J. Communications media
53
I,intited tievelop11rent of rrinss media; irr.portimet,
of word- of�nlollth conl1111ulicatism; relations be-
twecu nledin and tilt government.
1. Printvd matter
54
SiAllificaut role of newspapers lunong dveision-
making groups; loading papers; books and
libraries,
2, Radio and other media
55
liadio, the host extensive and efficient mo-
(litnn; television; motion pictures,
K. Selected bibliography
56
Glossary 58
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u4
FIGURE
Fig
1
ECTI ISNItativc' 1)IlYiicill t t
(ph otos) Yl
Page.
1 11(,
11
#Iousin c!c l'iciP (cha
!'a /.c
Fig.
2
1)istributiot of the Ltcliurl o nllit-
1 1
5
Fig,
Fi g,
12
13
Inlpruvis(tl housin,tw photo)
l,Jrlrtll
28
29
flan (map)
ryp)
i
dwell ilig'Mits chart)
Cin(�rul)111
;3f1
I I il;,
,3
13ishrib(Itdon of Luliult lun u;tg(s
(map)
,1'
K
15
dWellilig photo)
Outdoor buthiut; (photo)
;3Q
Fig.
4
Vitttl riltes (chart)
1
17
I
1(3
8 %vC1t1IMIs f (photo)
3y
Fi f�
J
Population, irO:l, iln(1 (1('I1tiitY, by
departillent
Fig.
1'1g,
17
1,
C miscs of (it!+lth (table)
`;illlll'1(' pt'Ut('l,, I
35
Vig.
0
(table)
Population density, by ppu nicipio.
1
1' ii;�
lei
18
lltilk(' le)
r (Po!)
36
38
Pig.
7
map)
Migi�atit� to the 1)(. );u'tlnent
c
1J
Fig,
2f)
21
I;clucit )n ;tt ilthotu)
SclOul t.uroll,,uent (tabl(r)
44
40
t)
Cuuteillilla (chart) i
20
Iig,
2
Auyun ttull)Ic r,,ins (photo)
119
11g,
8
:.A(llilO lUl(I In(llan 111iJ{t'iltlO,, (chart)
21
I'i
13;tekstrap loo,,) (phot
49
Fig.
Pig,
10
Ago sex sh'uet,,t'c! chart
Makeshift shrlter chart)
22
g
li;,
I
25
N;t n uul il)strul,,cnt (p11nPu)
1);uuxe i)f 01C voludores (photo)
53
photo
24
I ig.
26
Doily urivspupers (tablr")
53
5 5
f
J
H
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The Society
The survival of indigenous influence
in the syncretic religious
Y g practices `O `;1,W
at Chichicastenango symbolizes the
effect of the attempt to Impose the
Hispanic pattern on Indian cultures
in Guatemala. Despite four and a R
half centuries of interaction, the
society remains culturally divided.
WOU)
A. Introduction (C)
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attitudes crtphasiziug radical social reform or( the one
hand and (h4. presesvation of' Ilw ,vlctltte c111n 1111�
otlu +r. In torn, (Iris polarization has 4.ng4.ud4.red
(�ndentic vio Oct wc� The underlying c of 111is
intern 4.cine struggle iu tilt- view of rel is des
widening gap hclscccu (114- Imirgillal
sc�etors of Indian 4111(1 I,adilto stricly alol Ih4.
privil4.gr(d Upper Class. tilt ec�011011lic intbal;11tc(� which
to a largo- degree has 4.(Inte (o pa; Alel c�ul(tiral disparity
as a major obsl;m�I4. to social irtegrllion ;Intl nali,lnal
tuily. Official effo rls to allack dw t-corunlic {rut's of
Ihesc pr�oblcuts my represc�Ced I)v the clevelopna�ut
pilau for 197 directed in iargv Iwrl to raising living
levels for Iht- poorest rural in11abilants. r1s in the 11.,1 ,1,
howeycr. implementation of reform tnc;ISums 11,(s
(ended to c4.nlcr at high level+ of govvniownl, ;Intl
11111C allt-utl)l Ills buell nmde to itvolve the lower
sectors lltro,tglt 111e formal'r(Iu ill' grass runts
ur ganizatiuus. As ;I result, soci;il change cnnlinucs to
cl4.p4.rld 11 1)( 1 11 1114. good will of those in pow4.r radwr
dart upon (11e int4.r. ctilln of all cletncuis of soc�i(1v ill
tilt- political procvNs.
Soc�i ;i )att4.rns derive largely I those established
cluriug Ih4. volorsia) 4.1.11, wilco hispanic instilntions
:Intl values were sotxvirllpawd upon Ihoa of (114.
indigenous Indians, 'I'll(- Spaniards who ;irrivod by
way of NIt-xico its 132 -1 lilt-( lilllc resistance f'roru (h4.
Iribvs inhabiting the highland 014.;(s, 'I') support the
colonists, the Spanish Crows allowed Ibent to 4.xact
tribute in the I'Min of goods and personal
servivvs. Corporate bldian communities were f
in those areas where t1w popid(Itiott vats sCallert-d,
and, where possible, civil servants and mission ;lrics
were sent to adtniui:,ler (h4. Hies selll4.tnet :l s� In
gctieral, however, n4.itht-r the c�iwil nor the religious
fonetiouarivs were able to replace iudigrn()tts w;lws
with hispanic culture and rvligiot. Adaptalio lls and
compromises sweet Horde by bolll sides; Idispiulic� Ieg;Il
and religious pat(erus were superimposed opuo the
Indian culture, but the litter remained largely intact,
especially in remote dr(NIS.
Concomilalll wills the evolution of this basic social
pattern that ill ;I large Indian majority subordivatc
to altd exploiled by a Spanish minorily- -There began
to vinvrge ;111 intermediate social grouping, consisting
ill l of aCC011uratvd Indians, ineslizos. Negroes, and
rnulalloes, lit linw, Negroes and mulallocs lust divir
separate racial identity through ntisceg4.nation, ;ltd
(ht- inte social grouping, called I adhlos,
Cana� to iuc�lode persons of any racial c allegory whit
belonged neither to 111C traditional Indian cour111111
nor to Ilw privileged Spanish group. By (h4. 19th
Century the terns "Spaniard disitppeawd I III
w
cuurnutI usage, all d Iliv 14.1 I'mIioo c�anit III
4.nc0ntpass all p4.rsons who did not Iarlici pal e in 1111�
lift� of o Ir(liti(maI Irldi ;ol nIIIIIuoiIt.
The It r 4.1:Is I,ntlilio, howl ycr, 11:a, largely
exenipled from 11e more blalanl I'Ilrtns of social ;IIld
VC( nl Ill it discr�itni I'll iill ill IIicicd or Ih4. In(I ian,
whose :ilmdion delerioraled ra :)idly toward the clid of
tIll coloidal cra and in lilt- p4.riocl folloswing
indep4.ndviwo front Spain ill I-S21 A ,cries of laws
'Wrlaioing to Lind temtre rights and I l;lbor
1 ;Itionshilrs.-- pro111 1119aled by IIc govcmineltl ill t11c
10th c�enlIll\ t0ctisibly to prol4.cl Ih4. Indian 11'()rll
4.xploiLlliuu en;lhletl the alisloc�rac�y to ;InIIIiIv
cunlrul over indig4.nous lands and (o itlAil lit iott;tlize
OW boltcdage ol� t11c Indian, During the firs( half of the
20111 conturc more sobllt- forms of Iegulized forc�ec)
lalml r'4.placed 1114. old laws. solidr`f the
prel'1111m�Itce of ;I sn ;111 Stroup Id privileged I.;ulinos.
llndl 1111 raid '?O111 ccrl(I Iy yirto;dly uothitt; was Clone
lit integrate eil11cr� the Indi;Irls or lilt growing mimbvi s
(of marginal Ladino, info Ill� mainstream of society.
Thrmigholtl roost of its (Iislory ;ls ;111 iudepcudenl
n;Ilirat, :u;rW111,.II;I had b4.eu ruled by cotsveyativl�
imloc�ratic c�utiddlu.s' (slrungnietl) snpporicd by (h4.
siu;dl bnl 1)owerf ll upper class, Everl I h4. acb end of t he
IibcraI adIllittistraIion of hve id4.nI Jlisle Ilnfino
Bard4Is IS1 :1-85j 1;1111�(1 esscilIialI tI ;dl(�r IIll�
established S structure. W the iIIHIlx
of large sc� ;Ile foreign lllyesIIIIvIII ill the ;eut
Ann�ric�an frui ;Ind colTvc grossing ioc11istrics c lid ng
Ih4. adilliltist rat iorl of President X1;Inut-1 Est r ;Ida
(:abrer;I 1 1920 :uawinalo become 1114.
s(ereolyp4. 01 a "banmsa mpnblic in which lurk
prohls accrued to upper chtss entrepreneurs and
fomigu inycs(ors swhidc rural devedupno�nt Itogllisbed
;Intl urban slam ;Irons proliferated.
The bases for socioe4.ofloolic rc�forrlI .were
est i s Ic( p Ira(1, icrllly, dnriII the uclmiIIisIra(iorl
oI' 1'resi I III Jorg4. l'bico 14).31- �1.11, last of (h4. oI(I�Iine
rvttulilln.e. Nowd for his devotion to hoo4.sts' ;Ind
eI in overmnent, t'bico nuur;lgeo: to ac�11icvv
considerable material progrvss for Ilw c�uuntry. IIis
restrictions on civil rights and his kick. of a clynauic�
social policy, however, resultod ill (he coalescence in
the early 19 of' opposition elenienls within the
4.rnergelll middle sector, which iuchided industrial
workers, btisilessruen, professionals, Ivachers,
students, a nd junior military officers, Following the
ouster of' Ubico ill 14)11, 111esc 1)4.wly orticulate forces
elected Juan Jose Arevalo, a professor who had spent
1 11 1 1c11 0l his ,111111 life ootsicle (h4. country, as
IIresitlenl.
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l)tider AmyaIt) (14115 -51 scriuus aflempts were
nade I'or the first time ill (:n;cfeui:dan Itistor% to
extend tilt beuel ul'socioeconontic cic�vrlultnc�nl to a
broad spvclrmn (if' society. A compreliewive labor
code was r�rracted, a bruit� social security program %%as
ivaugimavd, Imblic e(hication was ezl:uidt,cl to rt,acch
lower class Imclinos ;old the 1114li:111s, ol(I 11
org:uiizalion (if' tilt loner sectors of snciely sas
initiated. Tllvse imltrvu(ions seriously lhirt;tiviwd lhe
traditional social stricture and the rrtouopoly of the
elite ern the i is( rot menls ef 1 i wer. Iii an effort to bring
abom drastic social c hillige in it niiniinunt 111loout of
tinc, the sulst,clut,nl administnition of* Jacobi Arbenz
(:uznt;tn !4151 .i1) inaugurated rt,fctn al all
increasingly rapid pace. %rbvnz came (o rely heavily
on Commimisls as skilled organizers and ;iclvisers,
particularly ill the ;treats of (nide union organization
and agrarian reforo, a step that (listiirl)ecl
conser%ativv political I'ac�tions and led to a coalescence
of opposition ;tniou9 the traditionally artli-
(:nrnnrcinist Iniddle and upper clerneuls of society. !it
Ilddition, file substilUtic,n of political parties mid
agrarian commitlevs for tradilion;d organizations of
local political control in Intli;irt corlntnrities
represeiled departures front established pallt,rm of
authority avid carised considerably local turiuoil.
The iuost controversi;Il of tilt� reforms, however, was
the Agrarian Heforrn :tw of 1953, the laicl
distribution program which w IS the kev invasme of
thct Arbenz administration's social pmg rain and the
one which represented the most serious chalivnge fit
the eslablislwd order, 0 -nerating increasingly vocal
opposition I'rott file upper class, Iht, church hierarchy,
and lilt arnwd forces, t!a� k 1,rariau lieforrn I.aw
contributed to the overthrow of Ubenz in June 1951
by a U-S,- supported force of exiles Iecl I,y (:ol, Carlos
Gislillo Minas,
The Ill -year experiment in social revolntinu lt,l�t a
legacy of mistrust and suspicion froth on the purl of
those who reccivec) bvitefils that were later wilhdrawn
a on the part of the elite whose power wits for a tiniv
seriously dircittenvd. Since 195�1 allcritpls to deal
clTectivck with the nation's social probleurs ha.ivc� beers
lintitvd, despite geucraily satisfactory advanees in the
macroeconomic sphere. :ertair, inocic�rnizing influ-
ences, iuclnding increased t,chicational opportunities,
improved Iransportalicu facilities, and a more
extensive its( of radio, newspapers, and television,
have tended, however, to break clown the isolation
that charuclerized MAM communities prior to file 19-10's, adding to the potential for social ferment
generated by the revoii;tion, Uncicr I'resideul ,litho
NvIvIldez `Montenegro 1966 -70), a left -of- center law
professor, some limited Ivogress was made i the areas
of he alth. od wation, civil service reform and tax
reform. I)III the major (lit of his adrainistnttion as
din�elt,d toward m;jiritaining itsrlf it, rfficr in the (;ice
of opposilimi f'rorn %om� arm% elemeWs wlto fell Ihal
lenclt,z colild not h ;udlt, tit( stlwersive threat.
further gradmil progress h ;ts been made undt,r
I'resiclt,ut Girlr;; ;Iraua (horio, an ;trine officer who
was elec�led in 1970 on it "law and order" plaN'orn
with the support of a conservative political c�oalitior.
To lilt discomfort ol' his less progressive backers, Arana
has demonstrated an oIlvxpecIvd concern for the
vconomic bellermeul of the� least privileged i;rouls of'
mwicty. hill inlrlc�tncnlatiort of his development
programs depends in large inasom upon his ability to
gather the nvc�;�ssary hunuut and financial resources for
a large -scale attack on social problems, Morcovvr,
ctucstions of internal security conlino;� to pl;tgut, tilt,
Ar;uta administration, s',p honing c,l�f ineager fmids
;avail for soCi :rl clt�velopincut and seriously
inhibiting progress in the area of social integration, A
Yearlong slate of siege l asting fron November 1970 to
Novendwr 19 1 hand erect opposition attempts to
organize trade anions, cooperatives. peasant leagues,
alnd grass roots political organizations, emicerb;iting
political ilml social tcusious and thwarting Ar ;ours
efforts to promo(- feelbigs of n;Itioual unity.
In general, little progress has been nt;rcle towards tilt
achicycnicut of it conse"sus as to national goals or the
means to achieve than. Although certain vit -m ants
within the mililar\ est ablishuu�ot (rare shown
increasing concern for the soci;il welfare of the
m,dt,rprivileged sectors of society, the army remains ;t
pmverful c�onoterbalance to ;tit\ moves that might
seriously threatc ii the position of yt,sled eccuotric
intcrvsk, Tl1v Homan Catholic Clurch, dcspile the
progressive iuflnt,nce of sonic foreign missionary
groups and the impact of recent Vatican pronouuc�t,-
nu�nls on social justice, c�ootinoes to be an essentially
cow,urvalive force ill society, Thv inherent cultural
conu�ryatisnr of mast Indians, mo rcover, cottslitcttcs it
c rious obstacle to the imple-nentation of reforms
which might threaten the distinctive pattern of their
c�nllure and estilt in Iht, loss of their identity as a
group. Although there is no evidence of a novetucnt
to I the Indians 1'rom their subordinate position, an
increased awareness aunong sonic In(liuns of the
possibility (if' achieving material progress is reselling,
accurclin9 to some observers, in growing discontent.
Stich ;c d(welopnu�nt, combined with the wit :cuing gap
between the "lr;ves and lilt "have nuts,. could
portend increasing instability ill Cuatc�ncalan nalioual
life.
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f.
R. Structure and characteristics of socict%
i (C)
Guatemalan society has beets shaped by an
interplay of various cultural elements that hat failed
to forge a national etl,ety despite almost four and a
half centuries of interaction. A relatively honuogencotts
Ladino sector, united by a common langu;.tge and
religion, contrasts with all Indian population which,
while sharing certain basic Values, is itself ;t plural
society compo.,ed of many grotps. Basically
Incompatible value systems have served to maintain
the distance between these two segments with the
result that the Indians, today comprising about 405' of
the total population, have remained in a position of
titter subordination.
1. Ethnic and cultural groups
The common characterization of Guatemala as a
dual society masks certain complexities which
combine to give the country a nonnational character.
The Ladino group, made up of disparate racial
elements ranging from pare Caucasian to pure e Indian,
represents the national culture, derived from Spanish
origins and Western in its outward manifestations.
The Indian sector, on the other hand, is an anutlgaun
of many cultures which share certain attitudes, values,
and norms of behavior, but which may differ radically
in external cultural trappings. Ladinos and Indians
cOlstitute what is be..t described as social races; that is,
they are distinguished on the basis of sociocultural
criteria rather than ancestry. ht fact, Guatemalan
physical types comprise a considerable range, the
mestizo makeup varying according to the predomi-
nance Of Caucasian or Indian blood (Figure 1).
Language, clothing, and social organization are the
basic differentiating factors. If a person speaks an
Indian language as his mother tongue, wears Indian
dress, and lives in a traditional Indian community, he
is considered an Indian. Similarly, one who speak:.
Spanish, dresses is Western attire, and does not
participate in Indian affairs is considered a Ladino,
irrespective of his racial origin. White upper class
Guatemalans may regard themselves as conslittting it
third division, but the rest of the population do not
recognize the distinction.
Because the Indian population vastly outnumbered
the Spanish immigrants during the colonial period,
interbreeding was frequent, and the mestizos soon
were more numerous than the Spaniards. Eventuall
the term "Ladino" came to encompass mestizos,
persons Of pure Spanish :flood and I-Iisparicized
4
Indians as well. Althorgh the Ladinos of Guatemala
share ill the general Hispanic culture common to most
of L_alin America, they range in type from wealthy
pure blooded Spanish families to poor peasants whose
level of livin); is indistinguishable from that of their
Indian counterparts.
"The Indians are classified according to degree of
"Ladinoization." or acculturation. Those who adhere
most strongly to indigenous values and customs_ wear
typical Indian dress. and reside in ,it Indian
community arc termed "traditional" Indians. "Those
who show some acceptance of the Ladino way of life
are described as "modified" Incfij:::,: 1aty modified
Indians are seasonal wage laborers who leave their
corntttuities for months at a tune and during their
absence adopt certain Ladino ways for the sake of
convenience. While away from home, tile\ ma\ speak
only Spanish, wear Lac lino -type clothing, and even
Ater the eating habits. Lpot returning to their
native communities, they revert easily to the
traditional ways. Other modified htdians cain be
found residing permanently in Ladino areas. 'Their
language and dress may not be altogether changed,
and they still retain the feeling that they are Indian.
Clothing is an import -tnt factor in distinguishint,
Indians from Ladinos. In the past, each pt tuti(gpia
(the basic administrative unit) was represented by a
clistinctive native costurie, with local variations
bringing the total number to about 500. while� some
styles are rapidly dying out, there is still substanti t1
variety in Indian dress.
The percentage of the population who regard
themselves as Indian (or who are so regarded by census
�akers) has declined as follows, reflecting both the
process of L.adinoizatiort and, at least ill the past, the
extent of racial intermixing:
CENSUS YEAR
INDIAN
LADINO
1778
78.4
21.6
1880
64.7
35.3
1921
64.8
35.2
1940
55.7
44.3
1950
5.3.6
46.4
1964
41.4
58.6
Indians predominate in rural areas and Ladinos in
urban centers, fallowing the pattern established
during the co!ortia! era. ho 1964, some 82 of all
Indians lived in rural communities; l,adinos were
fairly closely divided between town and country but
trade up the hulk of the urban population, even in
predominantly Indian regions. Ethnic composition
varied markedly by department in 1964, as indicated
by tite fact that Indians accounted for 95.4% of the
total population in the Department of Totonicapan
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FIGURE i.
Representative ph /s:,al types
Q
rr
Mestizos (C)
Indians (U /OU) Caucasian (U /OU)
and fm- ((nlx 0.2? in I Prugres((. I,u(liu((s ((luslil11te(1
lh(� 11u1j(urit grmtp ill 12 dep;irinucnts. I11(hails i11 1().
\1'ithirl each (lelr,utlncul. h(mvver, the cthnic 111akelip
ufte11 "t"ie(I h\ nrrmicipio J`ig11rc �?I.
\lost Illdialls lire iII the ccntral uIld \\esleril
hig'tlands. purti(�ttlarl\ ill the area itnmin(I I.ug(( (le
\titlau' I.ukc r \lillan It( Iwi -I. s((rne (i r; ((f the I((l:(I
Ill (1iIll Implilaliun ((us cu11ceIItralc�d in ei,ghl
'For diacritic, ;ai t(lac nann�, tin� list (I nann�, a1 the cn(I ..I
the chanter
delmr(Ille11ts in thece11tral :111(1 \(ester11 highlil11ds. and
:ulcclher I I'( li\i'd ill the 1)(Tilrtntc�nt (,f. \Ita Vcr,ilmz.
in the cc11ter Of the c(n111tn.
The IIldi:lus sneak 21 distinct langu:lges. N( hick :(re
In )"(.I*\ classified into( sip 111 ajnr linguistic grmlpi11gs.
SI>eukers (d a particular Ia11guuge d(1 n(1t necessurik
cxhihil anti (�111tun11 cnhcsiNrncss ur sense ((f rluit\.
alth(miji cerluin gI arc ass((ciate(I ssith l>arlictllar
secti((us of the Fignrc :>1.
I.ill-nistic diffcre11ces e111phasixc the (lip isi((ns ill
10ciet\. 11migh the Ilse ((f ludi:ln 1:1ngu:lge, is
5
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DEPARTMENTS
1 Guatemala
12
San Marcos
2 El Progreso
13
Huehuetenango
3 Sacatepequez
14
El Quiche
4 Chimaltenarigo
15
Baia Verapaz
5 ESCUIntla
16
Alta Verapaz
6 Santa Rosa
17
Peten
7 Solola
18
Izabal
8 Totonicapan
19
Zacapa
9 Quezaltenango
20.
ChigwmUla
10 Suchitepequez
21
Jalapa
11 Retalhuleu
22
Jutiapa
FIGURE 2. Distribution of the Indian population, by municipio, 1964 (U /OU)
6
Percent Indian
80 -100
60 -79
40 -59
C] 20 -39
0-19
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MAM GROUP
Mann
WilJ14l Aguacateca
Jacalteca
Karjobal
Chuj
C Ixil
P ')COMAN GROUP
Kekchi
Pocomchi
Eastern Pocoman
Centrat Pocoman
QUICHE GROUP
EM Quiche
MD Cakchiquel
M3 Tzutujil
M Uspanteca
3 Achi
clecii Ili ng, an estimated one third of the total
Population still speak an Indian language as their
pritriary tongue. All hilt one of the Indian languages
are of the 1Maya- Quiche linguistic family, which is
subdivided into five language groups; Black Caribs
speak at Carib- Arawak derivative. In gcueral, the
various languages are mutually unintelligible, 111(1
even among speakers of the same language, local
variations in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation
may tltake communication difficult. Increased
CHOL GROUP
Chorti 25.000
11 Chol 500
MAYA GROUP
Lacandon
Yucateco 2,500
Mopan
CARIB GROUP
Carib 1,000
No dominant indion language
Figures indicate estimated number of spc zkers
age 3 and over. total number: 1,150,000.
contacts with Ladinos, government programs
promoting Spanish, and improved communications
have combined to further the use of Spanish and some
Indians use Spanish as their primary language. It is
likely that most Indians know at least a few words of
the language. Among some Indian- language groups
Spanish is the lingua franca.
Unictue among the Indians arc the Lacandons, who
are found in a part of Peten Department which was
ceded by Mexico in 1882 and who are related to
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FIGURE 3. Geographic distribution of Indian languages, 1964 (U /OU)

neighboring groups in Mexico. Mane of tlu!sc people
have resisted dominatio: f centuries and still live in
scminonadic clans.
Ladinos inhabit the coastal regions, the eastern
highlands, an(! the Department of Pete In addition,
some Ladinos are found even in the most heavily
settled Indian areas. A small number of aliens and
fewer than 5,O00 Black Carihs together constitute less
thou 1 "i. of the population; for census purposes, these
groups are counted as Ladinos.
'There are few Negroid traces in the populati iudiculcd that onl\' 19,260
persons, or I.5(, of the labor force, Stt'ry rint'ut {Toyed,
the actual figrlre tt;ts closer to 10". Oflieial
statistics for Ilion, rec�t'nl \r;u's. mailable ollk for
ClIaterttal;t (:its, are hillil,d to IlIvIIIpIo\t.d persoIlS
rcgist,rt'd s\illt 5 \I�:: in the ,nrl\ 1970 rt'gistt'recl
\porker, lotikled It's, th;ut 1.11(1(1. f;tr fv\%cr than Il)t'
actual nundwr kuoS\u to be out of \\ork.
l'nvtnpIo} tnent in the formal sense is hight'st ill the
cities and the cotttut,rcial (;arming ztult's of 1�:,cuintla,
~until liosa, Suc�hit,{mc{u,z, and 1(elalhulett. Fill Il1ory
conuuon, hoStrcr, is Ill deretnplo\ntenl, a critical
problc�ut in both nrh;ul :111d rttr;d ;ur:ts. In (ht' chit's,
tnatt\ {n�r,o11s eltgagt'd in sere it't'S fuucl{on it[ rut
v\lr(�turl\ lost IcvvI of prodttctivity in tedious Ilu�nial
Jobs which offer little 0 {1{rtu'tunit r u{,t;trcl
Ilxtbility. 'Hit situation is t'St'n S\orst' i11 1 :eras
t\ ht're two- third, of the labor force reside. Nian\
suhsistt'nce farulers ()\\1t {dots tort snl;tll to pro\id,
\ear- round \ork. lu addition, disease, tualnutriliou�
and anti({natt'd hunting tnr�thods diminish productiv-
ity aIllong bout uuthile and stable agricultural
laborers.
kpproxint;ltel\ 120,000 youths, moreover, reach lh,
;1ge of 15 annually. BccattSe tut' labor market cannot
ay
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Size of Unit
Rooms 100%
Six or more
Five
Four
Three
Two
One
Walls
100% Floors
Wood and
Stone
other
Cane stalks
or poles
:8.5
Brick
Wattle and
1 14 4
daub
Brick
Cernent
Wood
Al t
Adobe
Earth
109 1949 1964 1949 1964
Note: In percent of total dwelling units
FIGURE 13. Urban dwelling units, by size and type of construction, 1949 and 1964 (U /OU)
ullsorb all of these lww %%ork('rs, the problem of
un('mpioyllient and uoderempio'na ('nt is conl
pourtded (-,tell year. kt the satin� time, Cuut('nudu is
exp('renc�ing an acute sltc,rtagc� of skilled labor,
exacerbated In the lack c,I' industrial training facilities
and the persistence of attitudes hich denigrate
manual Libor. 'flue National 'I'raitting cord I'ruclue-
,30
Roofs
Other
Cement
Straw or
palmleaves
Tile
Metal
100%
li\�il (:enter, it I \\hiclt speeiulixes in training
managerial and adnainistrutisr personnel. is being
rxp;uuled to prop ide iustrUCtion ill industrial and
tec�hllicll fields.
Social services
1)e4 activilir,s
Grnertnnenl ('fforts to inapro\e tit(' material \\cll-
being of' the bulk of Ille population hose be('rt
ivacleyuule. sporadic, and dircct('d I)rinuu'il\ to the
\\clfurc t,f the I,atlino sector. \lane it it'll tbers of lh('
elite acli\el\ oppose cell} ueasur(' hie h r,ulcl lent! to
cause� ch:utgc in the status (1110 or in the Struetor(' of
societ y. including such llwasurc�s us agrarian reform1
and nt;tss eclu('ation� In additioll, t1wre is widespread
opposition In enacting Hvw luxes Or improving the
collection of existing tuxes. \loretwer, I'ttuds tease been
diverted frolu social welfar(' projects Io internal
securil\ rectuirenit�nts.
The r(W(li' it of the lust major('fft,rl A social relortu,
itlitinted bv the revol tit iortary r \r('v:do and ;\rbeni
rc;gilnes, left a legacy Of' Suspicion and mistrust uluoug
the thousands who had benefited front agni ian
reform mid other tne;astn�es. The uchniuistrutiou of
\leader. \lontrnegrc,, labeling itself the "Third
Governntetat of the 11twolulion," 111.1de some att('ntpt
to recapture the moneutuln ol those )ears, moving
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FIGURE 14. Typical one -room rural dwelling (U /OU)
Type of Construction
100%
1949 1964

alnca(1 in sucli areas its civil service refornt, social
insurance, and education. In addition, it prepared a
5 -year development plan for 1971 -75. Accepted by
President Arima shortly after he took office in Jule
19 the plan comprises it series of related projects
designed to provide un integrated attack oil the
endeulic pmert} of the most depressed areas of the
country. Both the 1971 arl(I 1972 budgets hare
reflected the pl;11i's goads, stressing agricultural
development and soeial services, especially ill the
fields of educ;ltion and health. Financing is being
supPletllented by :\I1) loans of USS23 million for
agricultural devel(q)ment. 87 million for rl
el(Ttrifieati(m, and 52.5 million for rural health ura
progratls. Major funding. h(wever, is expected to
come Ir(n) ordinary governnteut revenues. 111 1971, ill
an effort h) inerease those revenues, the gmernnteut
reorganized the Ministry of Finance to c�oor(linale:11r(l
improve tax colleetiug operations.
I'll(- governineids National Program oI :onimnnity
Development IPNDC) has been ehoseu to implement
tam of the plans Programs in rural :11�(.as. Its
functions cover it wide range of projeets in such ar(.us
as literaey, agrictillwal extension, home economies,
health, cooperatives, an(I conuuuriit, 0n.g;11nizalion.
like iminvrous predveessOrs. the PNDC is suppose(I to
provide technical and Material aid than is hewild the
resources of iinl)(ACdshed conutnnities. ;ts role is 11ot
well defined, however, and its activities Wild to
encroach upon those of other go\ erilment agencies. In
addition, it faces the sane major prohlenl (d previous
o,;gatizaliots, manipulation as a personal political
y(.hicle.: \s of 1972, PNIX: maintained personinel in S9
Ill till in 10 cleparltu�nts. mainly inn the \\t-St-
Central liighlillick these individuals w(.rc (.ngaged in
comnittnit\ orgimizaliun, livestock development,
training in home economies Mitt handicrafts, 111(1
coolu'rative assistance, T\\ent\ total and four regional
training centers phis a haildi(�rufls center are the focal
points of PNDC activities.
The reaction to the prograiu has been nnixed.
\CCllstoltell to receiving exaggerated promises that
fail to materialize, manly rtn�11 residents have beconne
inurvd to mmouneenienls of nee( progruns to inipl-me
their living (-mlditi(tns. Ot the other hand, Presidvilt
:1r.1ua's (�nlPliasis on the n(. (.(I for each eonlrinnnity to
take the iiiiliatm in solving loc;tl prul11en1S is thought
to represent a dvparhur front ol(I political
pledges, In personal visits to most ullieipi(1s. Ar:u,a
has tol(I local residents that govcrtutent aid ill
(lepentd lai ;g(.I\ on nmtching local elllltribntiolts.
major featnn�e of the d('velopuent plait is making
eredit available to Iow- inc(uue groups. fll:t51t111(�ll as
contterc�iad banks are unwilling to uudem rite lu;tns
for high -risk borrowers, such as small farmers and
snl:.tll busiuess,nen, the go went nlent has it lout
gliarautc programs to stiniulate lending� it these
sectors. \Ithough lo;llls ure being granted ut ;t rapid
rate, the\ are largely confined to the capita) ;,u(I to ill(.
manufacturing conlponenils, b\ passing those areas of'
the ill most (lire need.
\lore (limed\ affecting small rural development
projeets, it 0)25(1,(10(1 guaranty to the Peuuy
I�'oundation. a private enlil\ engaged in rural
development. was granted under uuother prorunl. t h(.
Overseas Private Investment Corporations' Comilm-
tily (:rc(lit C(iaranty Program. TlIv N;tliooaI
:\grieultural Development Bank. established in m-, 1,
is also designed to provide credit to iuuovative
prOdUcers. basicall\ sinall farmers. In urban areas, the
Workers' Bank has Stepped up its loan aelivit:es.
I':nblic (.Worts in the field of housing art� hanipered
b\ it critical shortage if' Itt(is. \i;oi\ 1)nil(li11g
Materials must be i11)ported at high cost., ;un(I the uee(I
to initiate or expand Mater supply and sew(�rage
systems before construction constitutes un ildded drain
on se;11�ce fitaneial resources. In addition. planning
has suffewd Irmn a laek of su(�11 basic items as s,nail-
scale naps, and front it dearth of arehitv0s and
engineers Specializing in log\ -cost housing. although
the S(�flool of l'rbat- Regional I'luiuning at the
University d Carlos, established in I)1i,5, is
expected to increase the supple of Skilled persotnel.
liesputsibilih for pl;uniug 1111(1 executing the
housing prugn:,ln is shared Im INVI and INT.V IN\'I
lies overall a(Inlinistrati(e responsibility for urban
public housing projeets� while IN�l�:\ is simil;td\
inyoly(.(I with rural projeets. Inilde(luate fin;ulcial
resources have plagta INT.Vs aetkities, Ilia urbat
constn�uclion goads have been lan ;gel\ stet b\ IN \'I.
Must of IN\'I's ,mils \\ere it the 0)l,UU(1 to Ql,O(111
priee range an of w(.re ri1;(do w iIiIable to I ;ouiIies with it
nt+uthly ineonne of front Q:35 to QISO.
Middle- ilwonit. families purchasing houses ill the
0.5,(1011 and up e ;tlegor find a(Ie(lu ;tte financing
through (-mnnnerc�ial baulks, whose funds it re
supplemented b\ all :111) hutuSing gu:11�;11n1\ lo;ul of S i
million. Ill addition, loans ;nregranted b\ the \Yorkers'
Bank for the purchase or repair of houses btlt ire
limited to twice the borrower's monthly s;tlarv. An
Instin'd \lortg lgt\ Dm-4 111stitute, established
in 1961,further(. 1eom�agespri\ ateseetoreunstruelion
by jusuring mortgages up to 025,0110. Private sayings
and ImIll associations were iteorporaled into the
trtlional mortgage insurillwes\Stenl in the mid-1960's.
Eli
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Private efforts in the developmental field
suPplement those of government agencies. The fenny
i'ouncfation. financed largely by Gttatenudarn
businessmen, and the iVlaryknoll Fathers sponsor
cooperatives, credit unions, and agricultural projects
in such fields as soil conservation, experimental
fanning, irrigation, pest control. and livestock and
poultry improvement.
6. Weljary services
Although the Constitattion re cognizes the right of all
citizens to social sec urity, in the sense of public
provision for those who cannot care for themselves,
little progress has been oracle in developing a
comprehensive social insurance program. lost
persons in need are still depen(lenl on family,
conuuunity, or paternalistic employers. \-lady, caught
in it state of transition, arc without even this form of
assistance, having broken family ties, forsaken the
protection of the community, or traded a personal
relationship with a rural employer for impersonal ties
with an urban enterprise. A general attitude (if
indifference on the part of the public, contbitecl with
a chronic lack of financial resources, is responsible for
the extremely slow evolution of the social insurance
system. A Social Security Law permitting the
establishment of a national system was passed as far
back as 1946, but until 1968 only two forms of
coverage were available: one, it comprehensive
\yorkrnera's compe rtsation program providing work
injury and general accident protection, was operative
in 21 departments; and another provided maternity
hcnefits it, Guatemala Department only. fu that year
the system for Guatemala Department was extendeel
to include sickness benefits, and it 1969, disability,
old -age, and survivors' assistance.
The system is administered b the (IGSS)
GMAtenudan Institute of Social Security, an entity
established under the 19.16 law and financed by
payroll deductions and contributions from employers
and the government. As of 1969, more than -1- 17,000
persons, almost ;30(i of the economically active
population, were insured under the workmen's
compensation program in effect in all departments
except h Over 122,000 of' this mmnber, or 8(' of
the gainfully employed population, were also eligible
for the general illness and maternity benefits available
only in Guatent:da Department. The latter group was
also eligible for disability, olcl-:age, and survivors'
assistance as of 1970, the first year of that progrann's
implementation. Civil serv pvrsonnel are incluciccl
in the systeut, but domestics and the self employed are
nett. Mauv occasional workers probably avoid
;32
payment of contributions and consequently forfeit
coverage.
\\'orkers in the primary sector, the bulk of them full
time Plantation laborers, comprised more than 60"1 of
the total enrollment under the worknen compensa-
tion plan; those in the secondary sector, 15%; and
those in the tertiary sector. 255 The high proportion
of insured agricultural workers, unusual in Latin
America, suggests considerable progress in extending
social security to rural areas.
A separate Institute of iMilitary Wfelfare covers
career officers in tle armed forces. Providing
disability. retirement, and survivors' benefits. The
systcnn is financed primarily through contributions
from Participants.
IGSS facilities in 1968 included 28 hospitals with
970 beds. B ecause of it serious shortage of Personnel.
only I I of the hospitals were more than 50CC occupied
during that year, and the average for all 28 was 36ei.
The largest hospital, in the capital, contains >25 beds
and 100 cradles. IGSS also operates a re�habilitalion
center, polyclinic, family planning clinic, artd social
service department.. Like similar agencies in other
Latin American countries, the IGSS has been plagues{
by it serious shortage of funds sitc�e its inception.
mainly as a result of the govcninivids failure to keep
Ill) its Contributions. Ill 1wi9 alone. the Gu:atenr,dan
Government owed IGSS some (x�63 million. (;ouse-
cluently, facilities are grossly understaffed and
personnel underpaid. IGSS is nevertheless fairly well
organized and has been described as one of the more
effective governinew agencies.
Rehabilitation of the Ph handicapped has
received special attention front both Public and
Private sources. By 1970� facilities included a well
equipped poliomyelitis center treating some 200
patients daily, it new school for blind and deaf
children, a workshop for blind adults, it modern school
of pfnysic:d lherupy h G
and te ISS- a dt niu d
isIerc�
rehabilitation renter for it c�cidcnt victims. The
rehabilitation Program operated by 1GSS, in u(l(litiort
to medical Care, Provides vocational training in such
areas as handicrafts, tailoring, radio and shoe repair,
and clerical work.
Efforts of private and religious groups in the field of
social welfare have paralleled and often superscclecl
those of the government. Anwng private entities, the
Association of Infant \1'elfare provides child care in
some 30 clay -care centers and operates two temporary
placeu n
tcut houvs. Utter Organizations supplying
various tyres of welfare services include the National
League Ag:;rnst Tuberculosis, the League Against
1'olionlyelitis, the UlAvtnalan llvd (gross. CAilE, and
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n
Catholic Relief Services. A number of orphanages,
homes for the aged, and hospitals are operated by the
Catholic Church, which has in []many cases provided
welfare services in areas neglected b\- government
agencies.
3. Social problems
Serious social problems have been overshadowed
during the past decade by the high incidence of
Political terrorism, bl many cases, crimes perpetrated
by political l llotix, groups are difficult to
distinguish from those conlulitted by eolnnunl
criminals. As robberies, kidnappings, and assassiva-
tlons have become Commonplace, increasing cylllelslll
has developed toward police and judicial efforts to
cope with this type of crime. Because judges are
reluctant to Sentence criminals for fear of reprisals,
Police and army elements have resorted to (,xtrul(,gal
procedures in handling suspected terrorists. Conunorl
crinlin;.11s have uncloubtecll taken advantage of the
ccconlpanyillg social disruPtiun to commit cringes
which cur imputed to terrorist groups.
The Arana administration, which canoe to power on
it "lacy and order" Platform, has taken a strong stand
on the issue of crime, directly linking criminal acts to
the state of unrest engendered by terrorist groups,
Vowing to attack the problem through legill [])calls,
Yresfdent Arana in 1971 announced an c
reform of the penal code, including stiffer penalties for
such acts as publicly justifying crimes, ;aiding in
escapes, creating disorder at trials, and falsifying
documents or license plates, 011 the other band, the
revisions spell out penalties for public officials who
illegals' detain persons, imprison suspects without clue
process of Icl\\, or disregard release orders. In m1ditioll,
it new I'olice:\Cadeu)y accommodating approximately
-100 trainees annually was inallgurcaled ill ,lauuary
1972 ill an effort to professionalize the police force,
"'xtcrasfy(, achllillistratiye reuaganizaticnl has also takela
Place, along \yith improved mainteu;ulee ol� facilities
and equipment.
Drug abuse is lot a major problelu, although bard
drugs snlugglccl in b\ foreignel:s cure available in small
atllantit\ and the government has expressed concern
about the problem. N'lam of the Synthetic drugs c�cul
be obtain( in pharmacies withollt prescription, but
deaths from "VI doses are yirtualk unknown. The llse
ol' marijuana among niddle cold upper class i�Iclnents
has increased ill the past decade, leading to More
vigorous enforcement of existing lays, as well cos nc�\y
legislation to provide stiff'(-). penallies for cutlivalors
and traffickers Ill mail instances, the local supplie):s
of marijuana are uuaMare of its illegality.
Solnetinles described as the "national via,
alcoholism is a serious problem. It is partirltlarly
prevalent ;lmollg Indians. who commonly cousilrne
hard liquor on social occasions and in c�onu with
religious rituals and festivals. 1)rinkf ig, forexarnple. is
it social requisite during Plalting and harvesting
celebrations, and at parties, weddings, and funerals.
In some areas during the dry season, moreover, a
scarc of water results in excessive consumption of
homemade liquor. Alcohol anlcnlg both Indians and
Ladinos serves larger- as a Psychological crutch,
Providing it release front the drudgery of daily
existence, from hunger, and front the discomfort of
endemic illness. TO some extent, widespread drinking
during fiestas has become a substitute for the songs
and dances which formerly provided an emotional
ouLlet. The clandestine distilling of liquor has become
an important enterprise in some areas. The crime
index is closely related to the collsarnption of alcohol,
most crimes being committed by inebriated persons.
`wore than half of all traffic accidents also involve
drunkenness.
`lcntaI illness does not appear to be an acute
problem, and the suicide rate has remained fairly
stable at approximately 2.1 deaths Per 100,0011
Population. In any case, facililivs for treating []rental
diseases are grossly inadequate, although psychiatric
servi ,s care re I to rtedI nary being planned for
departmental hospitals. A General Directorate of
1entul 1lcalth was established within the Ministry of
Public Health a Social Assistance in 1965.
F. health (U /OU)
Uel'ic�ient diets, inculcquate medical care, rudin)en-
tary or 1)alnl�xist( sculitatioll srryic(,s, amcl pour
personal Flygienc combine to 'rive Guatemala one of
the lowest standards ol* health and sanitation in the
11 Ilenlispherc. Although disease and un-
sanitar} c�onclitiolls plague urban centers as well as
rural areas, the []lost severe health and sanitation
problems are foaled in the colultryside. diddle caul
upper class urban 1'(,sidcuts Kaye access to adequate
Medical facilities and comsequvlak enjoy better
health, bast th( bulk of the population suff er s I'ronl a
high incidence of prevent. able infcctiolls and
colmnuuicabI(, diseases. :1s with other indexes of
!material well- being. health conditions reflect the gap
between Ladino and ludiau. the kilt(,). being
consigned to lower levels of health bec;atlsc of greater'
poyert\. I'vwvr opportunities for medical attention,
and cultural inhibitions.
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Low literacy levels and a corresponding lack of
knowledge of basic hea.ith and sanitation principles
militate against tine use of preventive measures and
frequently result in a failure to recognize disease when
it occurs. Illness is thus often far advanced before
medical aid is sought. Folk beliefs concerning the
nature and treatment of disease also tend to retard
health care:, particularl: among the Indians, who
traditionally liave believed that illness results from the
influence of evil spirits. Severe ps distress,
sleeplessness, and loss of appetite often follom upon
imagined encounters with such spirits, predisposing
the vic�tinl to real phYsical illness. The extreme
shortage of physicians and other health personnel it,
rural areas impedes the spread of information or the
causes Of diseas and of modern medical practices and
fosters continuing reliance on curanderos, or native
healers. 'I'reatnurnt b a curundero usually consists Of
herbal remedies or the performance of it ritual of one
kind or another. Some curanderos also stock it few
Intent medicines. Lower class Ladinos still cununOtl
share sonic of the Indian folk beliefs, but, in ,general
they have greater access to modern medieiw
readily accept the ministrations of a p }tvsi 11114 my
better informed about the causes of disomil,
'I'lie difficult topography of Guatcvtllla and flu�
enervating climate of tilt lowlands are not
to good health. Mount ainous terrain s takes transf
health centers impractical in some areas, and nloblj
health services do not reach the more inaccessible
places. In the lowlands, heat and humidity cunbiue to
provide favorable c�Onditions for the propagation of
disease- carrying insects and parasites during most of' Sewerage s scrn'e but a small portion of the
the year, and heavy rainfall increases the possibility Of urban population, and there are nil sewage treatment
infection and contagion through surface drainage. plants in the country, Guatemala City has it combined
Children are particularly vulnerable to the health sewerage and storm drainage system covering little
threats posed by environmental conditions in tine more than half its total area: Only IW Of the area of
lowlands. According to one study, preschool -age Queziltenalgo is served by snch a system. Open
children accoutted for over 70% of ill deaths in ditches for waste disposal, Often flushed Out Only by
coastal areas, compared with less than 3(),- in the rainwater. are found in many urban areas. In the
c entral highlands. countryside, disposal Of Kunlun waste is even more
haphazard.
Garbage and trash accumulation also poses serious
problems in heiyfly pOpulated areas. Must urban
centers have no regular collection, and refuse is
clunped at the Outskirts Of the city, attracting
scavengers and pests. Householders in Guatemala City
pay a fee for garbage collection trash is collected 1
of charge at specified pickup points. Collections are
burned in an Obsolete incinerator or clumped in One of
two sanitary landfills.
Irlaclequitc' facilities for processing, storing, and
marketing food often result in spoilage ;uncl
L EnVironniental sanitation
Among the most impOrtant factors it the overall
health problem is the low Icyel of environmental sanihtic,n, reflected in coutaninated water supplies,
inadequate provision for waste disposal, ;and
unsanitary food handling. 'These conditions exact it
heavy toll in terns of the spread of discos( During the
1960 s, the mortality rate from dvsenter more than
�l0 deaths per 100,000 population �was tit( highest in
Latin America.
:3.;
According to it survey in 1967, only ;38.8,, of the
population had access to piped water; improvement
since 1964 is indicated ill the following urban -rural
breakdown, in percent:
1964 1987
Urban centers 70 88
Rural areas 8 11
Most rural residents obtain their water front a
comnunit)' well or from a nearby river, lake, or
strewn. Tlic drinking water is subject to gross
contamination, since it comes from sources which
serve as places to wash laundry and bathe, as weal as
depositories for sewage and garbage. Few localities
have water treatment f acilities, supplies being utilized
directly from the source. Private bathing facilities are
Ifniited. Public baths are generall available to urban
residents, but rural people must rely on the closest
body Of water for bathing purposes. 1 Indians
often use \%;arm springs and streams, persons of both
sexes and all ages customarily bathing together Figure
3.3 fn addition, swcathO,ises (tcInuscrtlr�sl. similar
til a sirr,na bath, are popular in certain regions
t F igtlrc� I,h
\It' lWellitlg units are without toilet facilities of
att\ -1- he types of sanitary facilities available it
1461 In�rcent of total dwellings, were is follows:
'TYPE
URBAN
RURAL
TOTAL
Byjd drain
30.1
7.0
15.0
Toilet
25.7
1.1
9.6
Cesspool
14.8
1.4
6.0
No facility
29.4
90.5
69.4
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contamination. Open -air markets are common; meat
and other perishable foods are displayed without
refrigeration and are exposed to dirt, insects. and
handling by customers. Virtually all meat is sold on
the day of butchering. A municipal code requiring
inspection of food and food handling conditions in
Guatemala City is not generally enforced, although
meat is inspected to some extent.
Although efforts to improve sanitation facilities arc
complicated by a luck of funds and trained personnel,
some progress has been made. In 1965, the Ministry of
Communications and Public \Yorks began a program
to supply potable water and sewerage systems to
communities which could not afford to finance such
projects on their own. Other programs arc being
tindertahc In carious agencies of the government.
2. Common diseases
Fur nary years, gastrointestinal disorders have been
the host common ailment of Guatemalans. The
country also suffers from a high incidence of
helntinthiasis, influenza and upper respiratory
infections, childhood diseases of all kinds, dysentery
(loth bacillary and amebic), and onchocerciasis.
'Tub(rculosis, although declining, is still widespread,
particularly in Guatemala I)epartrnenl, pointing up
the effect of urban crowding. Syphillis, gonorrhea, and
other venereal diseases also have high incidence rates.
For the population age 5 and over, the principal
causes of death as of 1968 were gastrointestinal
aililienls, influenza, and pncununtia, Because of
fluetuatiuns in reported mortality rates for various
r
diseases during the 1960's (Figure 17), it is difficult to
chart trends in most instances. The number of deaths
resulting from tuberculosis and pneumonia, however,
is clearly falling, while those resulting from measles
and homicide have risen markedly, the latter
reflecting terrorist activities.
Approximately 505 of all deaths in 1968 were those
of children under age 5. C:astrointcstinal ailments,
respiratory infections, measles, and whooping cough
:ire high on the list of reported causes of mortality
among young t :ildren. `'lost of the deaths can be
traced to environniental factors or nutlnutrilion.
FIGURE 17. Principal causes of death (U /OU)
(Number of deaths per 100,000 persons)
1960 19 1968
Gastritis, duodenitis, enteritis,
and colitis
217.2
2.12.5
2:30.6
Influenza
186.5
125.0
112.2
Pneunionia
132.9
126.7
10:3.5
Measles
�15.0
105.5
93,2
Whooping; cough
65.5
79.2
65.8
Dyseniery
41.2
42.4
-15.9
Anemias
30.5
40.0
42.3
Accidents (except motor vehietc
accidents)
29.4
28.5
25.7
Brollehid.
3.1 .11
21.5
211.9
Malignant, neophisms.......
24.7
2.1.1
25.�1
Tuberculosis of rc ;piratory
systetlt
30, ti
25.7
22.0
11 omicide
9.7
10.2
15.7
:\rterinscicrotic and deg;enora-
tive he;u�t disease...........
10.0
18.2
17.1
35
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FIGURE 16. Temascal, or sweathouse. Water is
poured over stones heated inside the adobe
structure, creating a steam bath used both for
bathing and for medical purposes. The door is
covered with a blanket. (C)
FIGURE 15.
Outdoor bathing at a warm spring,
Momostenango (U /OU)

Studies have shown that malnutrition is a contributing
factor in almost half of the deaths of children,
although it is reported as it direct cause in only it small
proportion of cases. Ignorance of proper treatment for
common childhood diseases also frequently results in
coniplications leading to death. For example, the
customary treatment for measles and whooping cough
in rnally Indian connnuni ties is a steam bath, which is
often responsible for severe pulmonary difficulties.
Smallpox, yellow fever, and typhus, once prevalent,
have been largely eliminated, althouth localized
outbrc,, continue to occur. %Malaria. the leading
cause 'if death in 1930, is still present in the C Mal
region:,. ,pread be 111�wlit vectors. Cont
have had considerabl, ccss, howe iml% A
deaths from rnalaria were reported in 1166. Prtigr:1111s
for reducing the incidence of the disease 6\ c int')lttletl
ll
an AID- sponsored spraying campaign t ()trt if I
conjunction with the National Servic;, I the
Eradication of Malaria. The Pan American d Organization has provided technical assistance.
3. Diet and nutritio 1
Nlost Guatemalans stiffer front low nutritional levels
that exact it high toll in terms of hralth and
productivity. Inadequacies in both tile quantit} ,old
the quality of food consumed result in a shortage of
nutrients essential for proper growth and sll ,,lncc.
Food deficiencies are clue in large nurasttre to lo\y
agricultural productivity. caused by an outmoded
land tenure system and primitive farming techniyu(,s
little changed in some areas front pre Columbian
times. Other factors contributing to the logy levels of
nutrit' include limited purchasing power, lack of
adequate facilities for transporting and storing foods,
popular ignorance of nutritional values� and cultural
inhibitions. For uu,st of the population, high protein
foods, such as milk and meat, are too expensive for
frequent consumption, lIl many areas there is it failure
to exploit available resources, for example, be fishing
or hunting sluall game.
Although there are social and regional variations,
most (:uatentalans depend 011 it diet of corn,
supplemented be black beasts, squash, chili peppers,
tonlatoes, onions. fruits, and occasionally meat.
Ladillos. ill ge ner al, consume a larger variety of fo ()cis
than Indians, reflecting greater economic resources
and more varied tastes. C orn the basic food of hoth
groups, is usually eaten in the form of tortillas. Other
couIlnun items of diet utilizing corn are stole, a drink
of gruel consistence which is sometimes flavored with
spices or cocoa butter, and tantal (,s, mad( b
wrapping cornmeal in leaves or husks and then baking
3(i
or steaming them. Tamales may include meat mixed
with c ornme al on special occasions. Second in
importance in the national diet are beans. usually
made into it thick soap or mashed and fried. Coffee is
the most popular beverage, despite its high cost, and is
given even to infants and young children. The
alcoholic drinks most widely cousuntcd :1h
agnardiente (distille(.1 sugare;tnc juice) and beer.
111 1966, per capita daily intake of calories was
estimated at between 831r and 9(11( of the
WC011ln)(111ded norm, and cereals contributed most of
the calories and protein, resulting in it grossly
danced diet (Figure 18). In addition to it shortage
1 of animal origin, the typical diet is
lit,tl krlly deficient in Vitamin A and riboflavin; there
1 a lack of adequate a.m, lnts of "1'he
of iron and thiamin generally exceeds
luirenlents, and Consumption of calcium and niacin
uas been judged sufficient oil the whole. It would
appear that the nutrition of children is less adequate
than that of adults, part) because of prejudices which
prohibit children front rating certain foods. `Ialy of
the dietary problems of the general population are
related to the dependence upon corn. Although etforts
are being made to improve the nutritive \-,title of the
corn consumed, and to supplement it, ()Illy a
diversification of the diet call sole the nutritional
problems stemming front the donlinanc(, of one food.
Both the ynautite and cltlalite of the diet vary
somewhat according to region. Because of their greater
po verty and their d(,pendesce up on local source, of
food, rural residents are less well fed than their
counterparts in th(, cities and towns. Subsistence
FIGURE 18. Per capita daily intake
of calories and
proteins, by item of
consumption, 1966
(U /OU)
C.V.UaIES
PROTEINS
unl- Peret'nt
Pereent
her of total
Crams
of tohll
Cereals
1,484 e;n.s
39 ti
Sugar
291 1,3.1
6.2
U,y
Fats and oils........
15;, 7.0
1 1Isty
1ns,y
Vegetables (othor
than tubers)
118 5.3
7.11
13.9
Ments
81 3.7
S 1
Milk and milk prod
llets
.1 :.0
�.3
4.0
I. ruits
25 1.1
tl �1
0.
Tubers
13 0.1;
0.2
O.Y
Eggs
7 0.3
tl.,i
U.;1
Fish
Y 0.1
0.4
Total
?,221 100.0
56 ,8
1 (t),0
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farmers in the west central highla11ds are the illost
disadvantaged. The diet of tile townspeople of the
region also compares nnfavorahly with that of urban
dwellers in other regions.
For trlanv Guatemalans nutritional deficiencies are
so great as to affect the ability to lead a normal life. lu
extreme cases, death results front diseases directly
related to nutritional insuffici0nc�v. Over 1,300 deaths
from vitamin- defic�ienc�v and related diseases occurred
in 1968. Tll(' most serious collseque�llces of the
generally poor diet are seen in children aged 1 to 5. the
age group in wlliell severe rmalnutrition oec�ttrs most
often. In its most extreme form, child malnutrition
leads to multiple deficiency diseases similar to the
kwashiorkor found it, Asia and Africa and
characterized 1)\' edema, skin and hair changes,
anemia. and retarded growth and development.
"etinls usually die unless treatment is given, and ill
Guatemala death is often precipitated by the popular
notion that a liquid diet will aid recover\ F.vell if a
child survives the disease, growth retardation nla\ be
such that he never makes up for losses incurred during
the crucial first -1 gars of life.
Government, private, and international agellc�ic�s
have joined in a rllarv faceted effort to itllprov('
nutritional levels. The Nutritional Institute of Central
America and Panama (INC:AP). c�arrving on programs
in research, education, and applied nutrition, has
probable made� the greatest impact. One of its nut,jur
contributions has been the development of a low -cost
dietary stpPlement known as Invapadna, a high
protein food made from corn, cottonseed meal, and
other local products fortified with yitarttins and
minerals. When cooked with water, Incapadna
1)econu's a dish of gruel consistency resembling t1)('
widely consunlcd atole. At a cost of -1 centavos per
four- s0rving packet, it provide protein and vitamins
equal to that contained ill fresh milk. INC:P has also
attempted to establish standard diets, based on
available local foods. \yhich can meet nlininlal
nutritional demands at low cost. Other activities
sponsored by INCAP have included pilot programs in
nutritional ('ducatioil it government health centers
and pul)licatioll of a series of pamphlets for
homemakers. 'I'o combat the dearth of professionals in
the field, the organization initiated universih -level
courses f dietitians and nntritiollists at the University
of San Carlos in 1966. In addition, it works with
private groups in promoting an awareness of
nutritional problems.
Other international ;agencies providing assistant�(
include the l!uited Nations Cliddren's Fu11d, CARL
.old Catholic Relief Services. whi have combined to
establish feeding prograrrs in schools and health
centers, largely through the provision of U.S. Food for
Peace commodities. Under a law passed in 19; I
mort,mer, all public and private sc�Ilc,ols are required
to establish such prograr_ls. The school lunches
generally c�ollsist of hot soup, rolls, and fruit and are frequent1v ilec�onlpatlied by practical lessons in
nutrition. Problems in enlisting cotnmtluity support
for transporting, storing, and preparing foods have�
1)( encountered it some areas, howe\er. Mau\
schools, furthermore. cannot afford to establish the
necessary kitchen facilities for preparing l uches. and
few of the poorest children are able to make the small
n anlelary contributions needed to cover local costs.
4. Medical personnel and facilities
Human and material resources to c�onbat disease
are inadequate in terms of' numbers, distribution, and
epualitY. In 19 70 Medical personnel per 10,000
population numbered as follo \%s
Physicians 2.5
Dentists 4
Craduate nurses 15
Auxiliary nurses 5.2
Laboratory technicians .3
Because of substandard facilities and difficult living
conditions. few medical and paralnedical personnel
chose to work in astral areas. As a result,
concentrated is concentrated in urban centers,
particularly (:uatenlala Cite. where an estimated S(1,(
of all physic�iarls in the country lrautice. Several
attempts have been made to establish cortlpulso r\
Medical service in rural areas for medic,d students or
interns, 1)ut not until 1971 did the University of Sall
Carlos initiate suet a program.
The shortage of doctors is such that only I londuras,
El Salvador, and f laiti ill Latin America have fewer
PIlYsicialls in proportion to their population.
Moreover, no more than 50 doctors are graduated
;ulnually from Cuatenlala's one nu�dic�al school, the
I of ,Medical Sciences at the- University of San
Carlos, although at least 1,000 doctors will be needed
in the next deeadv merely to nl;tintain the 1970 ratio
of ph\sicialls to population. Paramc(fical personnel
will probubl cuutinue to pla a major rule in
providing health care to the population.
Paramedical personnel are trained in t 11r
schools, a school for auxilia nurses, a school of
dietetics and nutrition, a ph y armac school, and a
I
ublic health training center. liural health centers, in
uldition. provide some training in environment;,f
sanitation, health education diseast� control, and
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neidwifer. 'There is it severe shortage of nurses, and
manv trained in the profession do not practice. The
shortage is partially alleviated through tilt- use of
nurses aides. in Indian areas, niany of the midwives,
mostly elderly women (Figure 191, also receive some
training as auxiliary nurses.
:llntost all hospitals are located in urban areas.
-lore than half of the 1,_1,()(13 hospital beds available
for use in 1970 were located in the Departneent of
Guatemala, and specifically in the capital, where the
General Hospital alone accounted for over Wi of all
beds and for more than IWi of all hospitalizations in
the country. The number of hospital beds has
increased considerably since the early 1950*s, resulting
in it ratio of 2.5 beds per 1,000 inhabitaurts in 1970.
In an effort to provide medical care to it larger
proportion of the population, the Ministry of Public
Health and Social Work has been promoting regional
outpatient facilities. In 1971 sonic 70 health centers
and well over 100 health posts, sonne staffed oil% by a
nurse or neidwife, offered at least elenientar medical
car Supplementing the health centers and health
posts ill rural areas are several MD- sponsored mobile
units, nsuall\ staffed b\ a doctor. it nurse, and it
chauffeur- assistant. "I'hese units pro\ide ini nuniza
tions, examinations. emergency medical treatna {�nt.
and health education programs.
Anion); tilt- factors hindering effective health care is
it severe shortage of pharneacetttie�atls anel medical
e(luipreu�ttt. Most must be imported, and there is little
stockpiling. In addition to tilt- shortages, the high cost
of drugs prevents nuua\ persons from obtaainink proper
nu�dicatiom. step toward allvviatin this situation
PI
FIGURE 19. "Granny midwives" displaying certificates
and supply bags after graduation from a public health
school in Chimaltenango (U /OU)
'S
was taken in januar 1970 with the opening of the first
of it series of state owned pharmacies selling drags at
cost.
A comprehensive effort to improve nnedical care in
the countryside was initiated late in 1971 when ,111)
agree(] to loan the government $2.5 million as part of a
86 million Plural Health Progrurt. According to the
program, health posts will he established in each of the
i2. tttticipios through a cooperative effort in Much
the community would contribute land, labor, or cash
for the facility; staffing and ecluipneent worId be
provided by the ,Ministry of Public I Iealth and Social
Work. "I'he Posts would be iiianned by rural health
technicians trained in administration health care, and
biomedical ecluipin(,nt naintenance. "l he plan also
calls for the establishnnent of it training school for
technicians in Quirigua. In addition all posts would
be linked by radio to larger health craters all(] to
regional hospitals for reference purposes, ordering of
supplies, and rapid notification of epi(lenics
G. Religion (C)
Roman (:atFtolicisna is the doneicaot religion,
although tar proportion of the� population chill,
adherence to the cbarrcit has bct�n declining .i,t,i
probabIN did not c�xccecl 9(),; at (ht- beginning of l 2.
For most (:natentalaut Cittholics. moreover. religion is
largely it formality: Ir\\ folly comprehend or practice
the teachings of the church. let Catholicism. it major
elenu�nl in the Hispanic� cultural heritage, continues to
shape Ladino \allies and attitudes to a significant
degree. while the syncretic folk :atholic religion of' the
Indian permeates almost ever aspect of his (fail\ life.
I'rotestaints. known as c�run ic�os in Guatemala.
coustitaUe about :3)" o1 the population, No- thirds of
all adherents be ins Ladinos: those professing no
religious affiliation comprise about 7`( of the peopl
I. Ronuun Catholic Church
(:hristianil ..;as introduced bm Honuue Catholic
priest., who accompanied the Spanish conclue�rors.
Despite earl\ efforts to instill Catholic doctrine,
aboriginal practict-s continnotl ill most areas. 'Too fey\
priests were at\ailable to inep,art sustained, eff"t-ctiye
instruction in the faith, and the rugged topo�,rapliy
I(ariller limited rnissionar attenepts to Chrisliauize
isolated auras. Moreover, the existence of some\ hat
similar eleneents in both the aboriginal auto? the
Christian rt-ligions ea used considerable intermingling
of the two ill the Indian mind.
For the most part. Art-- Colitnibiaut beliefs all(
practices still extant lo(la\ relate to the agricultural
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cycle and to healing and divination practiced by the
shaman. Among the Mayan gods associated with the
cultivation cycle and still revered by the Indians are
the rain and wind gods and the sun :ind moon deities.
Healing rituals vary but usually involve an appeal to
special gods, often performed in one of the many
outdoor shrilles found throughout the country, arid the
use of herb remedies. Divination usually occurs in
conjunction with the interpretation of the sacred
Mayan calendar, as it particular god is believed to
control each day. Only the shaman knows how to use
the calendar, his knowledge being a closely guarded
secret handed down only to chosen individuals. 'file
shaman is usually consulted for such purposes as
ascertaining the cause of illness or had fortune, or
determining the propitious time for traveling or
Planting and harvesting. Some shamans who
specialize in malevolent powers are believed to cause
bodily harm or death to the enemies of their clients.
In addition to these and other purely indigenous
components of their faith, Indian religion is
characterized by ,,ally Christian elements, solne
adapted to Indian beliefs. For example. Christian
religious figures such as Christ and the Virgin are
confused with pre Columbian deities: in addition to
its Christian meaning, the cross is believed to represent
the four sacred directions; baptism is associated \\ith
the Indian concept of "holy rain." Indians, moreover,
tend to worship the images of Christian saints. livery
conllnunit has its special patron saint represented b\
an image kept in the church and cared for by the
cofradia, or local Indian brotherhood, which is in
charge of certain religious activities. Dressed in robes,
the figure is carried in fiesta pr ocessions along with
inrlges of the I -lol\ Family.
Syncretic beliefs and practices vary widely from one
locality to another. In some mu rlic.�ipios, such as San
Juan Ixeoy ill I Itlehnetenallgo Department, aboriginal
beliefs predominate, While in others the efforts of local
priests and catechists have done mucll to elinlirtale
animist elements. Whatever the degree of intvl.lix-
ture, however, the Indians do not rc, gnize the dual
nature of their faith and consider it to one religion.
Despite continued adherence to aboriginal beliefs and
practices, moreover, the local Catholic church is
always considered the center of religious faith.
As a group, Ladinos observe more conventional
forms of Catholicism, Urban Ladinos, particularly
nleinbers of the middle and upper classes, are more
orthodox than rural Ladinos, whose :atholicisln has
been described as an "illiterate, popular Cflristianitv,"
containing many pre- C:olunlbian elements.
Ladino practices associated with religion include
participation in the public fiestas, which involve most
of the comm and in priv ce remonies, limited
to the family and close friends. ;Major fiestas honoring
the town's patron saint or celebrating holy days
usually feature elaborate displays of pageantry. The
Good Friday procession in Antigua Guatemala, for
instance, is said to rival that of Seville. Hundreds of
worshipers dressed in biblical costumes take part, and
numerous floats are decorated with flower and
Christian images. In general, fiestas are organized by
men from prominent families or by committee's
appointed by the municipality. Where Indians are
found in significant numbers, however, they arrange
the fiesta, and the Ladinos celebrate separatel
sometimes on another day. Although the typical
Ladino fiesta has sacred aspects, it is predominantly
secular.
Private religious ceremonies. important vehicles of
social contact in Ladino circles, consist mainly of
baptism and wedding celebrations and novenas.
Baptism takes place as early as possible after a child's
birth, depending on the av.ilabilih' of a priest.
:onfirnuttion is less colrinum, as it de-,)cnds on the visit
of a bishop, who is rarely able to accommodate the
numbers waiting to be confirmed. Novenas are
celebrated in private homes, largely b\ women, and in
some towns they assume the character of social events.
At intervals, prayers are offered before the small altar
found in Ladino homes of ever\ social and econonlic�
Icyel. When death occurs, the no\ena serves it function
simil to that of a prolonged wake.
Ladino nle ll usual'\ participate in religious
activities only during tithes of personal or communit
crisis or on special feast days. In fact, practically all lay
assistance to the church on the part of Ladinos conies
front wolnen, especially those of the upper class, who
place great emphasis on the formal aspects of
Catholicism and regularly take part in church rites
and special observances. In families in transition from
Indian society, however there is more participation by
nun.
Pilgrimages, although generally thought of as an
Indian religious practice, are probably wade more
frequently b\ Ladinos. Usually traveling by bus,
pilgrims visit numerous shrines in ;uatenlala and
several in neighboring El Salvador and Honduras. 'I'll(
shrine of the Black Christ at Esquipulas, by far the
most important center of pilgrimage in Guatemala,
draws visitors from Mexico and other countries in
Ce ntra l America as well as front all parts of
Guatemala. From late Deeember until after Easter the
shrine is filled with worshiper.
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Although the clntrch was it strong social and
political force during cololtial tittles, it was stripped of
rtlnch of its wealth and privilege in the 10th century,
when anticlericalism hee;lltlt, the dominant theme i)f
church -state relations. As aI result, the i`hurch has
tended to be poorer and less influential puliticull
th;arl in hutch of the rest of l:atin America. I)uring til('
first anticlerical period, from 1829 to 1139, the
:Archbishop of Guatemala CitY and a number of
priests wort, expelled, monastic orders were abolished,
the government assumed tic right to appoint church
officials ant) to confiscate church 1) ro pt rt\, civil
marriage was "little obligatory, divorce was le Itlized,
and cemeteries were st,cularizt,d. In 11.39 the church
was largely restored to its former position, and in I852
Guatemala bveanu' the first I.atirl American country
to sign to concordat with tilt Vatic` ;ut. I3t 18�,1,
however, severe restrictions, most of \a contirlut,cl
Well into tilt 19 -10's, wort, refnslitutt,d. In addition to
the confiscation of all church property' and the dt
of juridical personality to the church, nuuustic' orders
wt once again barlcd alttl all foreign -horn priests
deported. The church renuahwd in the hackg rot, 1Id,
gave tacit support to tilt government, and its
hierarchy identified almost t \yith conserva-
tive elements. In rural ;urns the influenet, of tilt
churcli was further wvakenvd as laynu'n took cliargv of
religious practices in the uhst,nct, of clergy.
Church- stalt' tensions rust, it; tilt, 19.15 period,
despitf' vigorous attempts b\' tilt kre\'alo ad Il i list ri
tion to dispel an alitichurch image. Although the
priesthuu(1 gt,11er4111Y favored the social reforms
;advocated by President Arevalo, lilt, church be(`tune
increasingly concerned over )ht presidt,nti it
c:uttlidac u! Iucoho :rhe'uz in 1951), and after ;lrhenz
\vas elt,cte(1, church opposition to his administnitiou
grew as its (;onllntnlist erit,nttltiotl bcculni` more
apparent,
With :0rlanz overthrow, t:ronlint,ul (:alhohcs,
including it nunlbt,r of priests, \\t're allowed to
participate' it,, tilt, drafting of it Ile\\ eousliltllion,
Although Ole docunu`nl (an(I its 1966 rt,l)! ;ttrnu'nt)
did not rt,estahlislt (:alholicisnl its Ihv owillsfyt,
religion, it conferred oil tilt' church it number of rights
not t,njoyvd in years, 'fit, church \\'as granted it
juridical pt \\',is allowed ""they morl` tit
acquire vild possess property (although only for
religious_, t,chacalfon ;al, or rlturilahlt, nst,$), Iutd \\as
permitle(1 to provide Catlolit ;education in church
schools and to offer ittstruct;� n in rt in ptlLlic
selools. Priems were given t1w to official"' in
marriages, hill divorce rellud h a, l e vI. No rt
or indenttlific;ation for confiscated church property
\vas malt,, however.
Since 195.1, the church has improved its position
sorlle VIUlt, despite the general anticlerical tenor of
official Policies. Although as an institution it cotltimu`s
to rd](T -1 the (task conservatism of Guatetllaltn
Society. increasing utunhrrs of elviMly and laity are
advocating it Illore active role in political and .a,riul
affairs. For a nundwr of dears, fur cxatttplc,'.hc church
has refused to colllnl('111oraty tilt victor)' of Castillo
A ntas in 195-- thereby t the antagonism
of the National Lil)cration Nlovenent (NII.N1, the
political party fonndt,d by Castillo Armas, In 1968,
dirvv \larykrloll Iuissionarit,s were' vxpvIIvd from tic
countre' h their superiors f involvi'ntt,nl
guerrilla groups in a higfll\ publicized affair \vltielt,
although ;ut isolated incident, adversely affected the
c hurch's position visa vis tilt, goyt,rnnlenl. In lilt('
1970, moreovvr. Iwo furvign cl`rgyna'u, oat' ;t
Catholic priest and the other an Episcopalian bishol,
also expelled, this time by the government, for
havilig signed it petition condemning violent,(� as
evidence of moral depravity and requesting lilt end to
llle slate of seige then in force. (Loth foreigners aild
religious Personnel are prohibited by lit\\ front
ptu'ticipating ill politics,) (:ardinill Mario (:asalrit,go
has twincmI some sympathy for boll) Ieflwiug and
rightwing politieill factious ;Ind has allentpted le,
moderate' the excesses of bolls. His kidliapping in
February 1968, report t,(I l\ 1) I'ighlisIs, gailn`d
iulrrnuliun;l) atlentiol, although he was reh`Ilsed
unharmed after I days,
Activities of the chilrt,h in the s 'bill field have aL;o
resulted in frictioll bt'1\vt,en the hierarchy and lilt
MIMi 'list rat iol, In 1967, for example, lilt prinati'
issued a postoral letter which reileratvd the precepts
contaim'd ill ,::e papal vIIc\clic;Il i"ewdorum
1''l ressit" gent,roll,\ eomidered the most progressive
of rt,ct,nl papal prouoluteelnenls on social doctrine,
Galling for "massive social reform,' he dt,nouneed the
"lrenlendotlsly Inl and unbalanced" (listribtltiou
of wealth, citing ine(luitabiv landholding patterns and
unti(luated (111 hiring practices, la matters of social
reform, the hivrarclly has tended 10 follow the lead of
the Vatican and has also ht,en illfluenced to solliv
degree by other Latin Anu'ricau hishops, particularly
tIll'ellgh pmlicip.1tioll ill Ills` I,a till :Illl'1'ie::tl
Episcopal Committee, it leading force ill restoring to
dynamic character to the church,
lndfyidlial priests are nulspoken in Iheirconcern for
social action, hilt their number is small, and they are
not as inf1twillie.l lis the n' comit'rparts ill solute other
Latin Anu'rican countries, Atlong lilt most aetfv('
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k
propoirnls of iucreuse(I chireh inyolyen1,111 ill social
sph1,ms ;ur the tMarykuoll missionarivs. Spillish Jesuits
ill Rafat,l I.tuuliyar Utdvvrsily, and til bishop of
Q11vvudlemingo. In 1970, over 7l) Marykroll hatht,ls
were active ill four dittet`ses, plus tllore than ;ill
Marykioll Sistvrs if, (if( Ilu1,Illitgvnango area, i
ud(lition to usual lllissiolum- t,fforts, (h1, Nlary knollers
have institulyd rre(lil nnionx, cuup1,ruliyrs, agricul-
tural training pl'tgt'illll, (itt,r;l(' courses, and
liu1lrrous other projvets whiell hay1, roltribulc(I to tilt
socioecolloillie dt` doilllivilt 111 oat` tit Guatl`illtlla s
Inns'( isi)LIted areas. As it compivint`tllary activity to
divir rural ,york, Mar\knollers Ilavv introduced the
rrusillo among the urban vxIl- to -do. This type of
training progriull, designed to create awareness of the
Christian laynai's rule in socict\, hits hrt,i
inslruntenlal in mo(lif\'ing li ronst,rx ;tiy1, atlilud1,s
of nmm uppo,r class Catholics in regard to social
problems, 111 addition, Misr �knoll nuns in tlr capital
operate o prestigious school fur girls,
Reform minded priests art, organizvd into Ilit
Confeder ;ltion tit' Dioct,sall Priests of Guatemala, hllt
this o,nliIy has not X1,1 d1 nlneII
vffectiyen1,ss. Reform cit,nlents were ills( runl1,nlal,
howeyt,r, in organizing the celebration of National
Pasloral Wcvk, held ill Into Isms, wht,n over 1,()1111
clorgy null layllivil gildwrt'd for ti` first ill -depth
;lialysis ever made of 1111 cllureil's role ill
collemporary (:ulll1,nullai society,
The church is tirganizrd in tilt trtt:;iiiitmll t`piscopill
11ttutm`r. Under lilt nulhority of th1, Archdioct,st of
(:111ir1Ilala, cmaled in 15 3.1, art, cighl snffrugtul
dioeesys, alld two prdiltllivs, oat` t`Ileolnpasshig (lit
shrin1, at Estiuipllills, In nddi(ioll, there ago, two
apostolic admillistrations Under tilt' jurisdiction of Ihr
Valiean. The Curdilull Arehhishop of lilt tvilmlit City
is aidt'd within tilt arebdioc�t,so, by Miner amiliarY
hisholls; two oilier auxiliary hishops urr asrifgncd to the
dior1,s1,s of 111101110vu allot Salt Nlal'cos.
(;41111ploing (h1, 26 -1111111 Iier ;redly amt, right tvsidt,il
hishops, Ill yivilrs gea1,ral, and Iwo I ptimthe
tdillinisl I'll tots,
Most of tilt stlffrtlgall jorisdiclions were rstablisl1,d
b\ Ihr V'Itica11 ilft1,r 1950 in order to roduce the power
of Ihr archbishop and It,) slrellgthell local ildministrn-
lion of :urns outsidt the capital, bong ehal�aeleriied
b\ tilt ct,ntrillizadoi of aithority, the church Mils
11/,81111 to t`xpvr1t`IIt'v it hr"I(l"I'llg ill' tiet.`ISllllllllaklllg
pow1,r, On controversi;d mallt,rs, how1,yt,r, the hishops
inynri.116 flileliou \\illlin Ihr frnlnt of lluiyrl ;�oil
church polio a, dieliI1,d h%, tilt Valicilll through its
milleio, II' it cnnflict mist's oy0 it purrl\ local Immure,
lilt` tlrchhishop normidly pr1,yails oy1,r tie 111111641, Ry
;nil lal ;t;1,, 111t, laity have little inlluo,mo, ill the
for11lulaliol of ditwesun polio In 1liv I lueiuo,terl;tllgo
Diuvow, however, because of the 1llt1,rIIIVdinr' v roll`
played by Illo, t` ;tIvellists and th1, dvpartln1,nt's
isoiaton front the capital, tilt, bishop ltsually respoids
to local needs its ;o'liculatvd by the laity.
As ol' 1970, there wrret352 parishes, mort 111 ;111 twiee
t1w number existing Ill years pr1,viously, The avvni I
1lurldwr of parishioners per parisII \\,IS still
;1pproxi lilt td y 15,000 iu 1970, or more than six tildes
the ratio in lilt, I!Ililyd Stalt,s, \land p;Irishrs luriI
;bras coyer vast t,xpans1,s of lerrilury, purls of which
can be rt,acbc`d only by foot or of horseback.
According to official cllurrh slalislics for 11170, ihcr1,
were 608 priests, almost half of whom wvrt wrving ill
the archdioct,sc, Although Iht, 19 fignm represents a
siitblo, increase MAT the )till priests aeliyl` ill 1953, it
serious shorlagv of ordilirled del"; continues to rrstriet
church actiyilies, The 1970 ratio of roughly oat, prit'st
per I0,000 iuhabilallts was higher than that ill lilt\
olllt,l� Latin ,lmo,ricall t.viiltr), Onk tit svIIIIf trlMIs,
nort,o\1,r, wt,rr training to b1, priests, Ilu'gvk becanst`
Cow young na`lt possess tlualificatons (or, ;It'll iitt,rt'sl
ill, church service, tithe parishes Irlyc no resident
priest, and ImIldivds of chapels ill vilingt's anti hanilcis
'o'1, ,cry1,tl h\ it priest tilt inure dull mwv a year, 111
1h1,s1, )daces, Indi ans ltl;ly rvgard tilt sllanlal its a
substitute for 1111, prirsl,
Prior to 111.13, most of Ili` clt'Ny wvIv s1,cu1411, or.
dioet,sto, priests, Following )ht, sullso,tlucnt itillux of
fnmigrl dorgy, this ratio wits r1,yt,rsvd, so that b\ 19 40
store than two Thirds of Ihr prirsl, \vrre illrmht,ls of
r1,ligions orders. i1whiding lilt Nl; ryknnllvrs, Ihr
himi'st group, josiits, Bolvdictii1,s, Fraieixvwls,
I,nzarisls, \torus',, Rcclrnllllorisls, I)onlillicaus,
5tigmaliie Father", ;Intl r1,pr1,s1,ntilli\rs of st,vend
Spanish orders, :\ssisling the clrrgy in 1970 \lerr titil)
)Mils lulu oy1,r �100 lily brothers, its wril its nunlerolls
Ian nlissiomlri1,s, Almost all U.S, ellurell porsonot,l ill
Glial1,nnla, of whole Iht,r, weer 1 mt,n and I(!a
women ill 1968, ;Ire Inelibrrs of religious orders,
principally the Milryknoll Ordt,r,
Fomign -born priests cullslitnit` ;111proxilntllely ,Sol'(
of !h1, local body of clvrp, illl Spunitlrtls
pr1,donlinating, followed b Iliilinns, (!,S, \Inr knoll
priests abut aceuunled for l,3 of IIIt priests ill 197
Of !ht, 13 bishops, only six art, nativ1, (linlrmalnlls,
Girdiia) :asarit,go mid Iwo 111111,r prriates alv sparlislt
b\ birth, Iwo bishops arc llikhalls, ;oil lilt law bishops
l'ronl lilt Xhlr\ktloll Ordvr art, t', ti, ciliv its, lit
adtlilinll1 ililst lit brother,, illlts, tltld lily Inissioliuiex
W1 of foreign 1,xtractiml,
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'I'll P I)rrsrne1r of a 111 rgv lit nllhwI of foreign priests h ats
alt limes aroused resrtthn'nt o the part of lilt` uativv-
horn clergy, whose youtlgrr Inelubers in palrtic�tllar fee)
that foreigners play tot) pronllut'nl a role. Forviga-
horn priests art sotl)etines prone to rvgau�d lilt nudge
elrrgy als poorl\' h�aiul'd and its more intt,mstt,d in
Inaintailling vxt('P11ad Itpl)t'al I' nves thall ill ministvring
to the urt of their parishiollers,
lit 1970 the church operated t)a; eharilablt
itlstiutions and 171 schools, the nunlhrl' of schools
was more Ilum douhle that in 1960 hill wars srlull
compared \�till that of illo Latin :Wit'ricall eotulries,
The klaryknll Order has also trainr(I It number of Im
entt'eilists to work atilont; tilt Indians. Colvellists 11a\'r�
mlltie' it e011\id('labll' impact !u uutn\ rurall
eonunuu!lies, particularly in bringing religions beliefs
auld practices more !n line with Catholic nruls, In
5111111' alrt'als, ho\wt, er, attempts to Illodify trmlltiollaal
forms of rdi lous expresxlr,l) haler mt,l wllll strolIg
opposition from euirrncht,d vofradiiis, th'nlonstratting
lilt tenacity with which Indian sorlrty dt,frn(Is its
ellstollis, III sollit' l'ast's, t'Iiragl'd Indians lal\'e drivoll
priests or calevilists from their yillalgvs mill rebuill
de'stroyod images used ill swllcrt,lit' rites. III aldtlitioll,
lath nlenlbc'rs of reform groups, such as Calholie Action
an(I tilt' Third Ordt,' of tit, Fr-mcis, work !n both urban
;ultl
rural areas, 'I'hrongh Itolnt' visits 4ln(1 stud\
groups, dwsiv lad nleu attt'In n pt to pllrlf Chr
doctrine b erllphtlsizing sillple ritual! anti dally
prnyvr ill plater of fit`slal cdebratiolls, ill doing so, thr
run the risk of antagonizing friends amd ut,ighbors,
who souu`lililt's rt tse to elder it rhtlrrll when the
rt`forlll at vocallt's ally \woe's liping,
2. protestalllt ehllrelles and other grollps
Ill 190"t, tilt Protest ;alit comm,11111\ wits diwlded
uluong 11 eliffrlc'ul dt'mlulnnliols, Ihl' Ia11;a;rs1 of
which wvry the following;
COMM UNICANT T OTAI�
MUNIllms rommUNITV
Nlttlowd HvanQelicid Presbyterlan
Churl:h of ctlawtnilla 8,300 21.,50!1
Friends Church 7,00 12,C10t)
Church of God O,l)t)t) 11,000
Asselllblies of Cod 0,800 27,700
EminKeltcid Church 0,t10t) 22,000
Sew filth -!lily Adventist Church 5.3C10 1!3,8!10
\II togolit'r, tilt Prolt'stanit vounlunily eolnprist's no
rlore Ihim 150M00 persolls, ul' about a "t of lilt, tolall
popllliltioll, Prott'shkills lire l'lIlnl ill till plll'Is ill tilt'
country but art'. proportionitt,ly most nuluerous in alit'
drpartmenls of lonbill and /,neap,, \Brie the\
vollstiillit' ahoill ",''r ill the popllaltiol,
_12
Protestants first t'rih Cumvituda ill 15.12, but
1 lissiomiry endeavors wort confined to l
st,ltleln`uts until tilt' early ISSIYs, Since that till', lilt,
nctllbrr of Prolt,stullt groups hats gradually incrvasvd,
lilt larger, traditional deuolllinattions operating in
turnd art'as and anamg n1i(I(llc�- an(I upper- incolllr
urban groups, aunt lilt Pentecostal wets working in
low- income urban areas, Almost all 1'rolt,stival gn ups
art asso,ialt,tl \rill, ,,ld firlunce(I I)\. it puarinl:ar sciools: public au�b:1u schools al the
I)reI)rinl:u'\ and levels recorded the second
highest rutio,:39:1 for both I }'Iles�
A greater problem than the scarcit\ of inslruclors is
dw high prof ortit)n of poorly (Iti;dified IeacLers,
1 \\illrt)ut Iwdagogival training :are folnld in
Ieaching posts al all levels, :ud 11 large number ol�
leachers ha\e 11ac1 no education be\urld the lv\el at
\\hicll the\ teach, Newel. than I" of all second:ar\
tt"Idwl's hold a university degree, or lict� lisle, \\hicll
liroreticall\ is a retluisile for teaching at 111a1 loud. In
Ml (1l It, raise 111e le\�el of prolicienc anr.)ng
uncertified prill);n�\ instructors, evenfnv; courses and a
suutuler Intirling progr ila have been offered.
The c`hrorlie shorIngt ol (Ialalified leachers derives in
I)url I the Iaet dolt teaelafng holds liltle 111nictioll
:s ;a profession, Teacllilig conditions are Door,
p articular!\ i1( rural ;areas, I`e\\ leachers Bare to rella:ain
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1'11aLIC
I
TOTAL
Preprhnary
72
21
93
Primary:
Urban
737
281
1,033
Rural
3,125
806
4,021
secontinry
75
293
368
Industrial training centers at.
tached to primary schools
17
0
17
All school
4,02(1
1,500
:5,532
I'lle \\orst conditions pre\;1il in the rural schools, most
of Mlich are one -room structures, Tlly\ are goner lk
o\ercro\\tled, I)oorl\ lighted and ven(ilated, :and
completer larking in slulit;ar\ focililirs. Urban
schools, altholigh also )verero \\dv(L are lls(lall\
divided into svp1trale elossrooltls null nua\ have the
IM
benefit of electric lightilig Mid sonic sort ol sanilar\
arrangenlelit, tichool e(luil)nu'nl is ilacle4lu :uu1
touch of \\flat is in use is I)rinliliva`. Tv\tbooks and
other teaching aids, such as blackboards, charts, :ind
Malls, :are scarce. NlaUl\ In1I)ils i1( rural schools taaust
snare textbooks, Schools i1( or neau' the capital ore the
hest salt)I)livd, Sonle te\tbooks, school ecluilnnen(, :anti
leaching mat('rials have been provided through All)
;1(1(1 \arious irteruationa) agencies.
While the inade(luac\ of school pl;uts constitutes a
basic obstacle to progress in etlue:alfon, the shortage of
instrnctol:s is v(tuall\ serious.:kllhoug11 the Ilalluber of
:available leachers increased k about 600 pt'r \var
during the 1960's, the gromll in slal�f, p articallarfI i1(
public educolion, (ailed to o\ercona` a longst:andiug
leacher deficit. prinlaril bec;anse of the rapid inrre:ase
in ellrollulenl,
The highest plipil teacher ratio in lie educational
System, �16:1, existed in the operated rural
>rinl:ar sciools: public au�b:1u schools al the
I)reI)rinl:u'\ and levels recorded the second
highest rutio,:39:1 for both I }'Iles�
A greater problem than the scarcit\ of inslruclors is
dw high prof ortit)n of poorly (Iti;dified IeacLers,
1 \\illrt)ut Iwdagogival training :are folnld in
Ieaching posts al all levels, :ud 11 large number ol�
leachers ha\e 11ac1 no education be\urld the lv\el at
\\hicll the\ teach, Newel. than I" of all second:ar\
tt"Idwl's hold a university degree, or lict� lisle, \\hicll
liroreticall\ is a retluisile for teaching at 111a1 loud. In
Ml (1l It, raise 111e le\�el of prolicienc anr.)ng
uncertified prill);n�\ instructors, evenfnv; courses and a
suutuler Intirling progr ila have been offered.
The c`hrorlie shorIngt ol (Ialalified leachers derives in
I)url I the Iaet dolt teaelafng holds liltle 111nictioll
:s ;a profession, Teacllilig conditions are Door,
p articular!\ i1( rural ;areas, I`e\\ leachers Bare to rella:ain
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ill the small rural schools: nurn% conunute to their jobs
from tilt- closest urban cvilter, where lhry hope
vycntuallY to obtain positions. Salaries are logy, and
raises ;amounting to 0 of solar\ arc given only at 5-
vear imteryals. Finally, little prestigv accrues tc, the
profession. The average teacher is not regarded :lit\-
more 114011\ than any other lilt-rate person. NNl:uly
teachers use leaching as a slna!I step up the social
la dder, Icayiug as soon as possible for more wwarditag
jobs.
Because they usually have smaller side classes and
amore textbooks :uul ilislrnctional materials, private
urban schools are generally considered superior to the
publicly operated facilities. `Iainluiued i cominer-
cial or philanthropic yetlltrcs, the private institutions
charge tuition fees 111(1 are attended larger b,
children of upper and middle class funlilit-s. j9;m1y of
these schools are operated tinder tilt auspices of the
Catholic Church or b other religious groups, Ill rural
areas, most of tilt prix atrly operated primary schools
Iry nlllimtaint'd b\ commercial plantations as rrtlllircd
b lacy; except for those srpportv(I b tau` ltnited Fruit
Company, du y Ire generally of inferior (luulily,
3. Government and education
A scarcity of financial resullrces, cu11 bimecl with ;u
elitist tradition of educational privilege, effrclivviv
blocked attempts to r(401 education fur More !11;111 a
c entury after independvilce, The t`t;t ul'slagnuliuo was
broken ill 1911 \yilll tile� I "-lion of Iltan josv:\revalo,
all educator, to the I't 1( y. :011migh some of the
programs were nulliyalc,I IIV ptiliIical c0 nsiclrrati011 s,
lilt period 191.1 -5.1 \as Ilotable for 111, expansion u1'
schools and for the first st'riolts eflort to include
Illdiams in 111e educational s\ste11l and. ill rur;ll areas,
to prouole a curriculum better stliled to local lived�,
\ftvr Ilu` ball of \rvvalo saaevessor, jactibl!
echtcation l;tlguisltrd for some 12 yvm,s, Itntil the
elvctiotl of 1'rrsidrnl Mvtldv% MonWilegro, whose
administratioll devoted vonsidt'rable ;a(lenlioll to dw
problems of education. progressiyr5- ye;arr(luv;alitna
phm was incorporated into div naliotlal dt'v(doptuetlt
phul, and basin del it'll ts�-- -which bear Much similarity
to concepts adopted t v been
inlplemrc`nled b lilt' Nralla ad kill mistralhill, Foremast
altru(ion is brim; gkol to rural vdllcaliul, through it
network of regional schools imtemled to operate ;Is
teaching, ad millislrn(kv, mid work centers, providing
glliclancv to saivllitr schools in tilt surroanclflg area so
that (lit`,\ might, ill hlrll, be('(alllt' fllll('11o1 ;Il 111 ik ill
tilt eonumnmitirs tlwy seryv. Eallphasi zing the r(wisioll
(lf curric,1111111s so as Its "take into aecomit tilt divers,
educational rvtluirena`tls of alt, colmlrv's major
cultural eoncenI rat ions," the plan calls for the
abandunnm`nl of some of the traditional acadeunic�
subjects and methods of instruction and for the
adoption of practical subjects. related project calls
for tilt- cstahlishtm,nt of pilot schools, where educators
are etwoulagecl to d(Wdop in11oyative curriculums
suited to local needs; after a period of experinenta-
tion, curriculums tray he introduced into the regional
school sYst(nt. In ;tdditiou, a large number of single
grade schools are to he c onstruc ted iu mmote areas.
:u)d a so- cAlecl yillagc education plan, comprising
basic literacy training and instmetion in farmliug
,methods for Ca"Tt'simos haying no formed education,
is to he launched in 1972.
dticatimi is regulated b, the 19(j(j (arslitmtiem
anI the 1965 Organic Law of National t`:ducatioli,
According to these documm`nts, the goals of education
include personality deyelop lilt- mt, physical and
spiritual belternu`nl, pronloticln of a sense of
irldiyidlal rspu11sibilitY. stimilla(ion tit' patriotism,
;tad inculcation of respect for hum an rights. Public
rducatiti11 is dvelared to he co11lpulsory and Ialifornl ill
lll;gallizatietll, administration, and sllpvrvisiml, Fv of
OW specific stipula(iolls, litmever, ;-re energeticlik
implemu`rllyd. Private schools ;ire emulated Im the
slate and arc` re(luimcl to conform to goyernrla`ut
st;umhuds and to use prescribed courses of study.
The Ministry of I'atblic Education is wsponsible for
adtllitlisterimg vdtication below lilt' university Ieyvl,
hampered b ;a lack of funds and pet:.ollnel, the`
ministry offers little opportunity for parents, teaehrts,
and local board" to !hut curriculums and activities
according to collilmirlit\ tweds, \'lilt (he ex,eptitin tit'
involving Im"II rural cotnrn Ind Iics ill school
construction, little has heen done to oyercorlre the
problems wrought b oyerct'11lr;ali %atic,11.
Public educaatiou is fillalleed ;almost vwIllsiyely
lllrorlgh central goyernmlent revemtc;, with sonar 'ti(
l
foreign and imler11.1 o11,11 sources, EITorts
involving local p;Irlicipa(ion in the tusk of WhOol
construction have also brought assist; llev from Ian`
private sector in tilt form of cramp me`r and building
maalerials, Since tmidcrntur\, educational m1wilditures
Itayr consislenlly represenl,d tar largest single item ill
lilt Motional budget, imcre;silig froul Q6,7 ill iIlion ill
191 )0 It! Q4 mullion ill 197.: \s ;a propurlioll of tilt
total budiwt, such rxpendilures have I'luo11,11ed from
a law of I(t,9''i ill 1958 to a high of 18J)"i in 1972.
\1Inuxituatrf 80 of all illotivy spent till educatitim
goes to !vacltrt;s' salaries, 'I'hr prinam'\ l(wel accounts
for dw bulk of expenditums, even though tilt, ay,ragv
rust of educating a secondary school pupil is abuttt
four tinm`s nigher.
IN
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�1�ht Uni\t,csity of S Carlos is I+. entitled to
receive 2.5"t of all ordinary public revenues: other
sources of funds include tuition fees and imcone
property owned b tilt univenit. N more th;ut threv-
fourths of the university's ;omit budget derives from
the 1
"m hu\ve\er, in p :1,t bec:ulsr tilt
institltion usually fails to receive its rightful share
from the stale, IWil annual increase ill the
university's operatin>; budget, \\hich totaled
approxinnatel\ Q5.5 million ill f9; 1, is projected.
Mort importantly, the d0-0101)nul:t 1)1:111 calls for the
oxpenditurt of x)31) million during the 197 1 7 .5 period
for expanding the physical plant. acquiring ne\\'
t and hiring additional facmit\' members,
1'111 these investments, governnu�nt planners
hopt to stimulate a greater imvol\'elnent on the part of
tilt academic conitlllllit ill lilt, problems of the
nation's socioeconomic dt`velo1)tnenl.
NAM\ the level of higher educatiOl, pri \ate school,,
which ill 1969 vontprised about ?i'( of tilt total and
acc0lnmodatod tl'i of all pupils, 1)1,t\ a Iess
im1)0rlant rc,lt, than t,ise\\llt,re in CV11tl'al :\nu`rira.
Nonetheless, enrollmmrll ill private st schools
during tilt late I960's surpassed that in public
secumdar' facilities, although a decade varlier
enrollmlent in public secondary education \\;t, nearly
double that of the private sector. Major emplmtsis is
being given under the dt,\elopllr`nt plan to the
upgrading and expansion of pul,lic sevoudary schools
so as to reestablish their primacy, 1 right st`condnry
schools are to be construcled in the national capital
and 11111e ill dep;u'tntt,ul;ll capitals by 19�i, The
facilities phollwd for tilt\ national capital are to be
shoaled ;l\\;l\ from tilt Center of the ell, "1 most
sf`enll(hlt' 1)1;1111m MV }11't,sellll\' l`011041ll ;ll ++1 o :1 tl1
provide Inure opportuuilit to the children of kmer
imcomd` familie,,
1. Artistic and intellectual expression
(L1 /OU)
:\rtistie and ill(vilecrtatl e\111�omsionl reflects both
Indian and Fu1,opeau i1Iluellces, :\Ithough tilt` etlilury
of the \la\alt Indi ;tors \\as ill it stale of declint` at the
time of tilt` Spanish conequesl, bel\\t approxi1n ;11 el
:\,I). 300 and 91111 it had ;ttlained it It,\el Burp;tssing
that of most itImrigiutt) peoples ;ltd e\idollt`ing ;l ,ellse
of esthetics rivaling thol of Greece and Hulot`,
Work ing \\iIItilt a sinp10 Stone ew Ieelmolop, the
\I ;1 \;ts constructed iII11)rvssi\t cerel lot Ii;ll centers
ehtu�acteriat,d b\ \\idt a\vllues aid 1;111 p\ r ;Illlid ;ll
te111ples (F igure 22): inlerior \;fills \\ere decorated \\ilh
rLfborale murals. The ruins of huge stone cobinutm,
fti
carved ill has relief, are amour the finest exampiv, of
\luvan sculpture.
\'la\an \\riling, mainly in tilt form of pictographs
but including some time of symbols to represent sounds,
is found on nloilunit�nts and potter'. Oml\ three
codices, large hooks of folded hark paper, sur\i\t,cl the
destruction of tilt- Spanish conquest, Yoder lilt,
tutelage tit' missionaries, ho\\ever, some \la\an \\arks
were later rill(`nl down. among them Popol Vuh, a
sacred book coulaining the cosmolog) of tic` Ma\a-
Qhliche people. Ill addition, tht` NI..t\'as had a highly
deyt,l01)etl S\mtenl of nlathenlatics and of astronorlt\,
;ud ;t c:tlemdar more advanced than that in time ill
Fiirope.
The folk art of prt,aut -da\ Guatemalans reflects
\ta\an artistic achivvvments Mll\' obmcurt,l\. Objects
made for eyt,r\da\ list rtweal ;111 artistic sense of color
and design, bat ft itelm are made for then' esthetic
value alone, as \\ere m;111) products of the highly
soplikticaled Mayan artisans. Native handicr,lfls brsi
vwmpfify the Mayan tradition in art loch\, TeWlt
\\easing i probably the most Iighl\ devolopt,d of
these, more than 500 differenl wea\ing tt,chnit{ut,m
having Iron identified. Indian \\oulem still list the
Art, (Atimbian back loom (Figure 23) for
\\raving cloth, rugs, and blankets, ntan with st\hzed
motifs dating hack to \lad ;ml times. bill the foot or
Iroatlle loom is employed ill shall imltlstr\, I'otlel'\ is
also produced in abllndance, eilher b hand or \\ith
molds: the time of a potter's \\heel is genorall\ confined
to f,atliuo artisans. Other handicrafts include the
\\ea\iing of stray\ teats, baskets, and ha1,, lilt
decoration of gourds, and the fashioning of masks and
costmn`s for use ill mgiotud folk d;u ves,
I'rior to lhC mid -20th ventur\ tilt` polrnliul of tilt
Indian cultural heritage was ,l;euer ;tlk ignored, For
most ol the blue bel\\ren Ihr contgu(`st and
independence, Spanish euflure 1)reclonlillaled. :\Iter
indrpt,mdt'IICo, artkliC and intellectual t,xpressiolt,
\\11X11 had flourished under tilt palrollagt, of tilt
Church ;old ('1,o\\ n. I:u ;t;rl clrrlfned. \Ithough some
inflnenct on art \\w, vwrled f\\ Mv\fcar interproli\e
artists inspired by the 19111 Mt.\iean 11t \\Ito
cnlphamired Indian Ihenn`s, it its not until the
19.1.1 -:34 period that sonic (malcmalan artists and
intellectuals seriously alleln}Itetl to adopt lie\\ ideas
and art foruls stt,nnling from abroad, \\hilt, o1he1
brg;ul to stress indigenous subject rllallt,r that \\ould
be comprehensible to tilt` populace at large. Since that
lime, most artists and \\rilt`rs, as \\ell aN arcfulects and
Illllsiciatvm have volltillm'd to focus oll tilt civatiolf of
authentic Imttionlal l` {11't,mmlt,ll \\hilt' renlainills o t`11 to
inlernatfonal devviopmenls ill the act
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"IMVI'llIlWiIt. I it ul ;irl\ It111t1\\int IIit u\ t`IIIII(I\\ I) 1
rIit I 111 141,11, \I1l'II I;11',l' illlllllll'r\ It`It till� l�tlllIItI
Or,lliir (11r tliftitultit', I icc`tl 11\ arli \t, ;Itul \\ritt�I
their \\llrk, aiv admirvil I1\ tilt` ttlutatttl nlrnt tit
1111 1It ;I(iI) 11, ,h ill (lit'\ t`IlIt1\ t�tlll \Itlt�r:1111t' 1I1't` \Ill;,�.
I)iiriIi!g I IIt colonial period t 1. I 11 I Iar`t
it 1111 I1 ;IIlItIlll' ;Illd rc` ;111,111' 1 \t'11niltlttl .\tIittox
lalut, nI \aint\' tuulnli \\itlnt`tl it\ flit- (�11urch \\t�rt
1111 tlt1111i11 1211 1t1r111\ III 11,I1i1l111 ;lllli \,'ill; >tllft'. 1'I1I lit
Illo "t pa t�U1t111 I)i111 11 II I )I Il':It etI 1. 11I111I(% II
Iitl ;1\ Illtt'ritIr ttI llctI II1't1l111 c�t'll 111 It 111',1 :111,1
in I't`ru. 'flli'citri,ed \\taulrn .sallto\, till t lit tit IIcI
\VI't' ,1I \1!c'II \111'vIitlr tIIuIIiI\ III,II I11:Ul\ \\t`It
t` \I)t1r(t'll. \II itI11 lic� coluliiA t'Il11itt11 \It 111 'It I ill lit
I 6 �7 (iI \;1, 1111` 1't'l't1t11 /t ll 111 1 1'IIItt111!till flit�
Aidlic ul S ;tint Sc il ;uti;ln 11\ lu;I 1 tit ('Ilit\ci i\
tun \itlt`rrtl t1It fin,',, \in: It` pit-ct' ul \t II IIrt'.
I'ain(in ,Intl \t ulllturr t,il n ;111`,1 in flit` 111`1 atlr\
I1111u\\in iutlrlltutlrnt't. 1\1,11 tilt' c�hlilch in it
r;lkrllrll \lcltt aIty, in Inlrnt t`, t tlulnli,,itln\
tlrrlinrli, ;nut arti,I�. \\itII It t`\t`r1Nilln tuuul tit ;Il
FIGURE 22. Ruins of the temple at Tikal, one of the
largest structures built during the classic period of
Mayan civilization (U /OU)
1)1',1111,' :1 t`Ilt'1:11 1't'lll\'tan� UII tlh' 11;11', UI (lit`
Illltllllc and It1111t'r t`I,i \,t`, (tI I1i11it r ;Irti \lit' t�Iltlt ;1\ t
or to lintlntitt` lull, m tht`ii ary 11101,` 11111- tllllt� itrtl \I\
Ili tilt ltllllltI\ Ill ;111 I` \t`r Iit'ItIII" II rl`III;lin\ IIIIIii�IIIt,
In1\\r\rr, It, l;lrn ;t II\init ,olck tllrtlulll ;Irli \lit`
IMr,Ili itrtl \ork ;IItIN1 t' \,`Ill \I \t l\ till
0 \11111 111' WiwiI it om 111 (lit ;11't \t`Ilt ill ht`
I ilk ''ilitit` lilt lrt`l1 \VI ll,l \I' IIt`rll \,Iil ;k lilt, It11't' \Ilillitills
UI' \t'llllllill't`; ,1\ (alt` ;1\ 111, 1, tIIt'lk` ;1 \,1111\
t11u llri\;ltl'vtluutu`rl'ial ;illrr\. Itllalrtl iu (;ualrin;lla
1:111. inl`t` 1411 1 tllr t lla, It�trrrtl
(larlil�i1l;ltitlu in It,r,'i;;n \tunlll`lilitnl\ anti t'\Ili11i1it1n
III add iIit111, llllriII tilt` 4 k1 1'1(;11,, ;111 altt`111111 ;1\
Itl,ttIt` lt1 t`tIt ItIr,11 t` 11IIIIlll` Illtt`1't`,( 111 tilt`;11'1, IIri
ail anllnal i'c' \li\ ;11 111 lllr \rl\. llrlll ill \nlin ;l
(;Ilutl`Illul;l. '1llt` tII AInl ;1\ II Ii\ (lit` \r;lll;l
atllllilli \Iratli111 111 141, 1 ,Ills) 1 Ili kllu ;1, tilt
1 ;111,` tit 1'1`1,1 ;Il t1) It 111111't` 1. IIII{\t` (1 ;IIIIt`I\,
\t'11111!4 11'\, ctlltI IIII is; t'I ;111\, tilt' II;Ilitln rltt`r ,Intl
I1l(t`lIt'l�111,II" II.I\t' I't`t't'i ,III1111 "1 1itI Iit lit I (lit`
H
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FIGURE 23, Backstrap loom, most commonly used by
Indians for weaving household articles (U /OU)

twalthv individuals and the govvnnent Mere not so
generous as patrons. Not until (ht late 19th (vzditrt,
wilvi President Jose Maria Reim) Barrios tvnYnnlis-
sioned storks for tilt beantif�ieation of tilt capital, mas
artistic aetivitt rented, althorgh felt outstanding
storks (sere produced.
luring the earl( 20th centnry. ina ny artists,
influenced b., the Ronlantic \lotemelit, turned to the
depiction of local customs and mannvrs, ;t mode of
expression known as eastuub6sillu, One of the earlit,st
p ;init,rs in this school and still a feuding hdhwnce in
rotltemporar Guatemalan painting is Andre"
:urrichiche, :tit Indi tt hose numerouw works portray
Indian customs from religious rituals to dailt
activities, Other costunibrista painters include
llumherto G ravito th. 1897), tvho has specialised h%
local scenes, and Alfredo Galvt Sure. (1899- 19.1(11,
who painted a mural in tilt National 1'alace, The
paintings of Aduro \lartincs k1912 -56t depart
sonuvtvhat from the vostunibdSto sltic, exhibiting a
highly I rical quulit obtained in part lhrotigh tilt, use
tlelicutt, colol�ing vonveing a dreanilike at-
mosphere, Perhaps the best vosltIihrista sculptor is
Itodolfo Galeolti 'Torres h, 19121, (silo has usod
Indians as models, later Iln�ni n to \Iaall gods ;Intl
lt,gentlarr figures as subjeel Inatler.
Guatemala's only 20th centnrt artist tt ith a solid
international retinlalion is Carlos Merida (b, 1891
Although lie has lived in \Iexiro sil,te 1919 auul spent
Iraq lime in Fitnipe at tilt beginning ttf the century.
Merida was the first Guatemalan artist do incorporate
indigenous themes, st rllbols, and motifs in abstract
paintings. IIis storks arc replete \011 s.00morphic
theries and trialguhr� gt,onwtic elements reminiseenl
of Nhn an art. \lerida has exerle�d a strong inllucnce
till 1110d.ern Gnatellrlall p ;lilding.
St'rt'tal of the c)ntt'nlporar 9el,t,r,16011 of puintela
have gained rccogniI it; n dIt riIig the Mast decade,
znuong them talis Waa. (b, 19'191, hannar Rojas
I l l It1 1, and liobt,rto (:alurra (b. 19,391, Althorgh
most curuv painting tends lU be incleztsirg ab-
stract, some youngel artists are emphasising highl
realistic and overtly political themes, .such as a recent
series of tvatelrolors depicting, the ;Issassination of it
political figure, (:ontrmporar sculptors include
I.obt'rto (:onzalc4 Got ri 111, 192-1 1, noted for his std l-
iked stunt` figrrt's in tilt' Inallnel tit hh"al) arllfaets;
Osctr� Barriontos (li, 1921), lit rvccules arrlil1,01'de
\sticks in metal; and F.frail, 11evinos b, 1!,33, who
quvi dins in an1dwcl"MI seulptum, \Ian; tvmtt,mp
porary ;ulish art gradnatt of llv National School tit'
Mastic Ark and later studied abroad,
30
lit reevid dt,rades, !loth painters and sculpto haVe
received a numher of go\erument eonnnissions, This
trend toward using (ht, storks of' natirc artists to adorn
public Fiuiltlings fiegall during the c'tutstrtu�tion of the
National Palace. \(brit sculptor Julio Urruela Vastturz
(h. 1910'1, noled for his stork in stained glass, directed
a (call, of :tatlelnal ;u sculptors ttho integrated their
stork ttith that of the architects. More recent ev iinples
include the capital's (:itic (:enter, a complex of
strikingly modern buildings incorporating relief
sc ulpture and decorative elements inspirt'd hY
indigenous designs, ;nd the glas,enclo"ed \lunicipal
Building (19561, tthich eonlaiits a fanwts "INK)
sttuart foot mosaic b Merida,
Beca list Gualenah \vas no( ;is ttr ;dtht as Peru or
\Irvite. most r ;uly tolonial architecture was r ;ether
nustem. Churcht,s doubled as fortresses, letting thick
exterior walls and bare interiors. In einitra.t, Arent latt,
17th vvnlury hildings invorporated elenestts of the
barotpte sly le. Antigna Guatenrda, lilt capital 1. 11u11
1511 to 1773, contained some of thv finest exainMles of
Spanish architechnr in the Nety World. \lore 111.111
ornate churches acre huilt, varying in sise small
open structures to large edifices ttith (lure naves.
During lilt' 1700",, Antigua Guatenrda suffered three
major e;r�thttuakes, which destroyed sore t:f its finest
buildings, before the capital ttas moved to its plrselt
site. Outstanding structuirs include tilt catheehal
(Iwgrn in I( N), olne of tilt purest vv;unples of Spanish
aurltitectusr in Latin Anwriea, tilt Clinvel of La
\It,rced (17;11)1, the Old National l'alace 1176.1), and
lilt original building of the Univel of "san Carlos,
llo\\ the Colonial \I1lseunl,
In the nett capital, neoclassicism, epitouliled bt the
cathedral 08151, dominated architectrial stele, Vast
building sclelnes ttrre undrrtakeI ht it sn(vt'ssioll of
prrsidrltls, beginning ttitl heir, Barrios, tvlo song
to nake Gnatenala City a Tittle Park" In the 19-10"',
however, archilects Mio ll,,d studied abroad began to
develop an authentic 01atelnalan arebitvcttnr suited
to local climatic eondit�son', As a nrsull, uodern urban
construction n lects a blend oC lnl
indigenons design. 01'.0onlida 01\, for exanple,
conlains modern steel and concrete buildings
inntelspe NA'd \tilh Spank t�tllonial antl 11e00;slit'
A1 netnres. 11110tlillgs wfivet the Latin American
pench;tlnl for ilnlrgruliing Ilit, t knt l arts into
architecture, livvanse labor is cheap and building
ncticrials e\pemk e. potentially artistic nlatt,riak Snell
at, meuc, taut lie 11411 as altenWti\AN to pnvt,nsUucdtvf
nnaWdals, 'This tmnd is exemplified in the capital's
Civic (:enter and \111166pal building. Art and
architecture :use also inlegra led, bud to a iest,r degree,
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ill commercial and residenti buildings, partirtlEari\
in sev eral mode apartment complexe.. designed Iw
architect C rlaettssler.
\dell of the literature produced during the vad
colonial period \\as written b\ (:athtilic missionaries.
:\trtong the most outsta llding historical treatises \\as
the fuulous Brevisinta relac�ion tit la drstrurrio do has
Indius t Brief Stor\ of the i)estruction cif til Ir(lies). b\
the Domirica n friar, Bartolotne de las C;asas (147-1-
1.366). In udditiolt, a number of works were written
in Irittin b\ neubets of the clergy, notabi
11dael La ildi\'ar (17,114). Missionaries also in�.
traduced the trt(litiona1 Spanish auta dc� de-
signed to impart doctrine. to replace the pre
("I'lillhian drtmas Wilich the\� suppressed is pagaul,
Certain elements of indigenous drunk \\ere retained.
including ttpulatr language aut(l sone use of
magic c-t sidered necessary to the iitli ;tn ps\
but the main figures represented \\ere those of
the traditional tatztt) church, the devil, and
deat{.
The NO, ceutilr\ \as (marked b nt\\ directions. it,
literature. Essayists began tee colsidrr politir;tl and
social prublrtn..: \utonio lose dr Irisarri (1786 1S6,
k1lifiml the literu�\ figitrrs of this era. halving lived
abroad for 1.!ng periods ;end pnbhshtd \�olutninousl\
un higlil,, diverse sufIects, including political
polentic�s, \rlst, romantic no\ t,ls, and arlicles on
philclop, Follo\\ilig indtpeldrnce. it uttrber of
tretttist,s tilt evlorial histor\ appeared, tos;rlhrr \\il
partisan inh�rprttations of tilt' C antral .\merican
illdepVlldVl cr mo\ etnent. :\It \larurt (i S(Ri-
51) and Lorenzo \Iontnf reprrsrnling the
iiberatl \�ie\\'poitl( anti Jose \lillat \�idmirt� (1`22 -Q�
lilt\ comervatire, \Iillat \'idaure, historian till(1
titlVdist, prodilet'd \\Intl is probabl\: the lintst Colltral
:Nmericall prose of tilt 19th crtitiln, Editor of
C ilalellalat"s Gaz0a OBrin he ira\eled \\idol\,
serving as a tli!\lorir,t durilag the regirin� of liaf
C:arrera and citing tilt both fore and lucid customs
under tilt' pseudonym of' Salolrn� Jil. Ilistoda tit taa
I>c�pe (llistor} of a Foundling) is probably the most
remMlit'd of ;ill his \orks, am] its stain chaaractrr,
Juan ('hatpin, cnitimu s to t\ pif\ the (:ualenrilanl
lean in tilt street, For tilt rl ;ost pit �t, dt ;tnlit Iv
(matenmhnls slid not farr \\ell in ctimpt,tition \vide the
tllow popillar Spanish roma litie plzw, and during the
dictatorships of lilt caul\ 20111 tviatir\, l lams satirizing
Colattrir,laur societ\ amt go\r�rim�nl \\�err largelj
suppressed,
Crtattertul ;u \\rilt�rs throughout lilt 20111 eviku r\
Irit\r covered a idt ralge tit' subjects lilt( have
getlerill\ emphits'ized social Intl political llleulrs. Ill at
political novel, La stulibW dc ha Caste Malacca (The
SIatdo\\ of tilt Wlitt� Ifouse), .Wilu Solo llall
0841- 19.1.1) was the first Goatemallan author to
criticize V.S. ilr\ol\enent in Central :America, mlide
historian and anthropologist Jost :lritollio \'illa(tirte
Calderoo. (b. Iti79) \\its imlotig tilt- first to \\rite
realisticull\ of indiat socie(\.Although best known
for his fant Baf;lei \re\alo \lartin(.z. (b. iSS -f)
litter turned to criticism of the social structure. Other
tit hors writing prior to World War Il combine d social
Protest \Vitt regionalise in novels and stories set in
ruril and coatst;d ;treks.
Not until til re\olution of 19 }a, houe\er, an(I the
formation in 1946 of the Saker -Ti group (named ;tfttor
it greeting in the Cilkchicluel languagei did the
realistic rlovel of social protest hecollie doilit ant. Two
author�. hest the stciatll\ committed riters
Of tilt re\�olutionar\ period, Luis (:ardoza :\r;tgon b.
190� and \liguet \ngel Asturias (h. 1899). C:ardoza
.\ragon, anthass ;ulor to the L',S,S.11. during the 19�I0's,
\\its a urilur figure ill promoting soci reulisn and a
lt mem1wr of Saker -�1'i, 'I�he most flnuis of Iris
\\arks. Guatemala. has lint-is de set ano (Guatenlcd ;t,
(lit Line's of Her Ifand), ptlWishecl ill W55, evokes the
eomplr\ social and cttlttu:t life ol� his native tunnel\
ill poetit lailgllalge and illl ;tLrr\.
\sturi ;e, C: lateluala's most itnlortant 20th center\
author, hats barn dt,x�ribt,d as gi\ ing prrnane net ;end
unk to ;elites igmred or despised for it long
time.�� Miming he ;oil\ from Indian tradition ;ltd
thought, hr has beta i list rmntutA in the creation of a
national rtlittur through developing ;n aphrrri 1
for ntglertrtl aspects of (:uatiemal socit,t\.
his \\orks mii\ best be doscribec) its falling \;thin tilt
rra till of social realism am! art ilillnrnrrd i li
Spaulish pit,; rt'silue rc,\ el ill lhrir descripli\ e force alid
depiction of cruelty in hurr.ul rel ;itiolls, the\ arc
imbued with tilt lttatgical o\�t *lont,s of Indian bthel�s
and t,ustorits. \fierier of tilt bruin I'rat'e 1'rizt in 1966
and the Nobel !'rice fill' Literature in 1967, Ashtrias
I rgan writing in tilt 1920'0 and Imblislied his firs(
major tit I. tiendas tit- Gwifem ala, based on Imlian
folklore, its 19,30. His no\'eis, beginning \\ith i�:l st-not�
presidente in 19.16, gral.!ically port rat the
brutalizatitin of soeiely n�sultiug fettle politicall a lld
t opprvssion. trilogy m riltett in tilt' 1915t)'s k
dilreted agatirlst foreign -e.\\ m d ba hunt plauttaitiors,
\\hick ht cttttsistrntl\ attaekcd for exploiting; tl;r
laborer and chaining tilt agricultural \,tatlth of tilt
nation. Mulala do lah(Millalto Woman). published in
19t i, is mnggestive (if Ills earl\ writings ill its ltetila)
evocation of the nl\(hical \\orld of tilt Imliml,
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As a result of the! political events of 1054, it number
of waiters left Guatemala and established a literature
in exile." Many of their works are political diatribes.
Perhaps the hest known is ex- President Juan Jose
Arevalo's El tiburon y las sardinas (I'll(! Shark and the
Sardines). depicting the United States as the predator
and the small, weak countries of Latin America as the
victims. Other authors in exile include Guillermo
j Toriello (former Foreign Minister wider Arbenz),
Manuel Galich (presently assistant director of the
Casa de las Americas in Havana), Raul Osequcda,
Jaime I)iaz Rossotlo, and Mario Monteforte Toledo.
The last -named author turned from earlier novels
depicting the struggle between mail and nature to rite
portrayal of social problems. For example, Entre la
piedra y la Cruz (Between the Stone and the Cross),
published in 1948, is the story of in educated Indian
forced to choose between two worlds. Monteforte
Toledo is also the first native writer to produce a
thorough sociological analysis of Guatemala. Other
contemporary authors not belonging to the exile group
include Adrian Recinos (1886 1962), who devoted
much time to translating and interpreting Quiche and
Cakchiquel manuscripts, and David Vela, it journalist
and critic noted for literary history and biography.
New forms and subject matter, including Indian
legends, social problems, and psychological themes,
characterized mid -20tH century drama, but the plays
of several authors who have written over long periods
of time, notably Asturias and Galich, cover a wide
range from costr:mbrismo to social criticism. For the
most part, the works of contemporary playwrights
manifest the influetice of international trends in the
theater, with the notable exception of Carlos
Solorzano, who emphasizes Guatemalan themes.
Several groups perform both native and foreign works
in Guatemala City, but because of the sporadic nature
of interest in the theater, the _,otintry has no
professional compa!w. The formation of the Arte
Universitario group tinder the direction of Roberto
and Carlos Mencos has helped to recruit and train
needed performe:ss.
Music and dance, so important in the cultural
expression of pre Columbian Indians, remain today,
with the exception of certain handicrafts, the purest
indigenous artistic forms. The Mayas and post Mayas,
like their counterparts in the high Andean countries,
used the pentatonic scale, producing it music closely
related to the sounds of nature and characterized by
melancholy tones and marked pauses. Many native
instruments have survived, among them it number of
different wind vnd percussion instruments. The high-
52
pitched chirimia (Figure 24) is the finest comrnc;nly
used of the wind instruments. The national musical
instrument, however, used by both Indians and
Ladinos, is thcr marimba, a type of xylophone, with a
keyboard of small wooden plates. The Guatemalan
version of the rnarirnha produces i t deep resonant
sound which distinguishes it from marimbas used in
neighboring countries.
Ritual dance dramas, fortnerly an integral part of
Mayan religious ceremony, are still performed by
It ;{inns in various municipios, each region or language
grouts having its preferred dances, usually with
intricate choreography. special music, and elaborate
rented costumes complete with carved wooden masks.
[n the spectacular dance of the aoladores the
performers swing from ropes attached to a rotating
platform 50 feet high (Figure 25).
,I'he missionaries who accompanied the Spanish
conquerors introduced European music and instru-
ments, teaching the Indians to copy music, to sing
Gregorian cliants, and to play Western instruments,
such its the guitar, mandolin, and organ. Spanish and
Italian music was predomint!.nt, not only in the
church, but in the theater, and Spanish folk songs were
sung on many festive occasions. As in most of the other
arts, it long period of tagnation in the field of music
followed independence.
Twentieth century composers fall into two general
groups, those who emphasize: classical European forms
and those who attempt to assimilate native folk
expression in an effort to create a national musical
tradition. The first to incorporate indigenous themes
into his works was Jesus Castillo (1877- 1946), who
published transcriptions of Mayan niusic and
descriptions of Indis.ut musical instruments. Castillo
composed Guatemala's first symphony and also wrote
operas and linisicai suites bused oil Mayan themes.
Several other composers, including Castillo's half-
brother Rictirdo Castillo (h. 1894). have continued this
tradition. CL ssical Western niusic is represented in the
works of such composers as Salvador Ley (b. 1907) and
Enrique Solares (h. 1910). Most Guateillulan
musicians and composers are graduates of the
National Conservatory of Music. established in 19 -11.
Their works are performed by the National Symphony
Orchestra.
The most commonly performed dance of European
origin is the son Chapin, derived from 19th century
ballroom forms and characterized by a mixture of
short Spanish- Indian rhythms. Danced at festivals, the
son Chapin is popular among both Indians and
Ladinos. A folklore ballet group produces sophisti-
cated versions of popular dances, often performing the
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200110050 -8

in coil niercial and residential buildings, particularly
in several modern apartment complexes designed by
architect Carlos Haeussler.
Much of the literature produced tkuring the early
colonial period was written by Catholic missionaries.
Among the most outstanding historical treatises was
they famous Brt,visjma relacqon (le la destruccion (le las
lndias (Brief Story of the I)estructiopr of the Indies), by
the Dominican friar, Bartolome de las Caros (1474
1566). In addition, a number of works were written
in Latin by members of the clergy notably
Rafael [.arldivar (1731 -93). Missionaries also in-
troduced the traditional Spanish auto de fe, de-
signed to impart doctrine, to replace the pre
Columbian dramas which they suppressed as pagan.
Certain elermnts of indigenous drama were retained,
including popular language and some use of
magic considered ne cessary to the Indian psyche,
but the main figures represented were those of
the traditional auto --the church, the devil, and
death.
The 19th century was marked by new directions in
lite attire. Essayists began to consider political and
social problems. Antonio Jose de Irisarri 1786 -1868)
typified the literary figures of this era, having lived
abroad for lo.. periods and published voltt.niunusly
on highly diverse subjects, including political
Polemics, verse romantic novels, and articles on
Philology. Following independence, a number of
treatises on colonial history appeared, together with
partisan interpretations of the Central American
independence rnovern ^nt, Alejandro Marure (18(9;-
5 t) and Lorenzo Montufar (1823 -98) representing the
liberal viewpoint and Jose Milla y Vidaure (1822 82),
the conservative. Milla y vid,ture, historian and
novelist, produced what is probably the finest Central
American prose of the 19th century. Editor of
Guatemala's Gazeta Oficial, he traveled widely,
serving as a diplomat during the regime of Rafael
Carrera and writing on both foreign and local customs
under the pseudony of Salome Jil. 11istoria de tin
pope (History of it Foundling) is probably the mos
renowned of all his works, and its main character,
Juan Chapin, continues to tvpify the Guatemalan
man in the street. For the most part, drama by
Guatemalans (lid not fare well in competition with the
more popular Spanish romantic plays, and during the
dictatorships of the early 20th century, plat's satirizing
Guatemalan society and government were largely
suppressed.
Guatemalan writers throughout the 20th century
have covered a wide range of subjects but have
generally emphasized social and political themes. In a
political novel, La sornbra (le la Casa Blanca (The
Shadow of the White House). Maximo Soto Ifall
(1871 1944) was the first Guatemalan author to
criticize U.S. involve ueut in Central America, while
historian and anthropologist Jgse Antonio villacorle
Calderon (b. 1879) was among the first tc write
realistically of Inclian socicty. Although bast known
for his fantasies, Rafael Arevalo Martinez (b. 1884)
later turned to criticism of the social structure. Other
authors writing prior to World War II combined social
Protest with regioutalism it novels and stories set in
rural and coastal areas.
Not until the revolution of 1944, however, and the
formation in 19 -16 of the Saker 'I'i group (name(l after
a greeting in the Cakchiquei language) did the
realistic noel of social protest becoru' dominant. Two
authors best exemplify the so committed writers
of the revolutionarN period, Luis Cardoza y Aragon I).
1904) and Miguel Angel Asturia!, (b. 18991. Cardoza y
Aragon, ambassador tot b e U.S.S. during the 1940 x,
was it major figure in promoting social realism and It
leading member of Saker -Ti. 'I'hc most famous of his
works, Guatemala. las lineal de sta ntano (Guatemala,
the Lines of Her [land), published i 1955, evokes the
complex social a cultural life of his native country
in poetic language attd imagery.
Asturias, Guatemala's most important 20th century
author, bias been described as giving "pernianence and
universality to values ignored or despised for a long
time." Drawing heavily from Indian tradition and
thought, he has been instrumental ill the creation of a
national culture tbrough developing an appreciation
for neglected aspects of Guatemalan society. Although
his works may best 'e described as falling within the
realm of social realism and are influenced Iw the
Spanish picaresque novel in their descriptive forccand
depiction of cruelty in human relations, the\ are
imbued witlu the magical overtones of Indian beliefs
and customs. Winner of the Lenin Peace Prize in 1966
and the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1967, Asturias
began writing in the 1920's and published his first
major work, Leyendas de Guatemala, based on Indian
folklore, in 193(). I-lis novels, beginning with El senor
presid. me in 1946, graphically portray the
brutalization of society resulting from political and
economic oppression. A trilogy written in the 1950's is
directed against foreign owned banana plantations,
which he consistently attacked for exploiting the
laborer and draining the agricultural wealth of the
nation. Mulata de tal (M ulatto Woman), published in
1963, is suggestive of his early writings in its poetical
evocation of the mythical world of the Inditun.
51
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As a result of the political events of 19, a number
of writers left Guatemala and established a "literature
in exile," Maury of their works are political diatribe%,
Perhaps the best known is ex- President Juan Jose
Arevalo's El tihuron y las sardinas (The Shark and the
Sardines), depicting the United States as the preda',or
and the small, weak couniries of Latin America as tilt. Other authors in exile include Guillermo
'l'oriello (former Foreign Minister under Arbenz),
Manuel Galich (presently assistant director of the
Casa de las Americas in Havana), Raul Osequeda,
Jaime Diaz Rossotto, and Mario Monteforte Toledo,
The last -named author turned from earlier novels
depicting the struggle between nom and nature to the
portrayal of social problems. Fo example, Entre Ice
piedra y la crux (Between the Stone and the Cross),
published in 19.18, is the stor} of an educated Indian
forced to choose between two worlds. Monteforte
Toledo is also the first native writer to produce a
thorough sociological analysis of Guatemala. Other
contemporary authors not belonging to the exile group
include Adrian Recinos (1886- 1962), who devoted
much time to transl ating and interpreting (Quiche and
Cakchiquel manuscripts, and David Vela, a journalist:
and critic noted for literary history and biography.
New forms and subject matter, including Indian
legends, social problems, and psychological thernes,
characterized mid -20th century drama, but the plays
of several authors who have written over long periods
of time, notably Asturias and Galich, cover a wide
range from costunehrisnio to social criticism. For tlrc
most part, the works of contemporary playwrights
manifest the influence of international trends in the
theater, with the notable exception of Carlos
Solorzano, who emphasizes Guatemalan themes.
Several groups perform both native and foreign works
in Guatemala City, but because of the sporadic nature
of interest in the theater, the country has no
professional comp any. The formation of the Arle
Universilarto group under the direction of Roberto
and Carlos Mencos has helped to recruit and train
needed perform ors.
Music and dance, so important in the cultural
expression of pre Colombian Indians, remain today.
with the exception of certain handicrafts, the purest
indigenous artistic forms. The Mayas and post Mayas,
like their counterparts in the high Andean countries,
used the pentatonic scale, producing a music closely
related to the sounds of nature and characterized by
melancholy tones and marked pauses. Many native
instruments have survived, among them a number of
different wind and percussion instruments. The high-
52
pitched chirineia (Figure 24) is the most commonly
used of the wind instruments. The national nunsicr.
i list run le it, however, used by both Indians and
Ladinos, is the uirimba, a type of xylophone, with a
keyboard of small wooden plates. The Guatenraian
version of the rnarimba produces a deep resonant
sound which distinguishes it from marimbas used in
neighboring c ountries.
R itual dance- dramas, formerly our integral part of
Mayan religious ceremony, ore still performed by
Indians in vurious munidpios, each region or language
group (raving its preferred dunces, ustially with
intricate choreography, special music, and elaborate
rented costunies complete with carved wooden masks.
In the spectacular dance of the roladores the
performers swing from ropes attached to a rot ating
platform 50 feet high (Figure 25).
The missionaries who ;accompanied the Spanish
conquerors introduced European music and instru-
ments, teaching for Indians to copy music, to sing
Gregorian chants, and to play Western instruments,
such as the guitar, mandolin and organ. Sp anish and
Italian music was predominant, not only in the
church, but in the theater, and Spanish folk songs a ?are
stung oil many festive occasions. As in most of the either
arts, a long period of stagnation in the field of music
followed independence.
I'wentieth century composers fall into two general
group those who emphasize classical European forms
and those who attempt to assimilate native folk
expression in an effort to create a national musical
tradition. The first to incorporate indigenous themes
into his works was Jesus Castillo (1877- 1946), who
published transcriptions of Mayan music and
descriptions of Indian musical instruments. Castillo
composed Guatemala's first symphony and also wrote
operas and musical suites based on Mayan themes.
Several other composers, including Castillo's half
brother Ricardo Castillo J). 1694), have continued this
tradition. Classical Western music is represented in the
works of such composers as Salvador Ley (b. 1907) and
Enrique Solares (b. 1910). Most Guatemalan
musicians and composers are graduates of the
National Conservatory of Music, established in 1941.
'I heir works are, performed by the National Symphony
Orchestra.
The most commonly performed dance of European
origin is the son chapin, derived from 19th century
ballroom forms and characterized by a mixture of
short Spanish- Indian rhythms. Danced at festivals, the
son chapin is popular among both Indians and
Ladinos. A folklore ballet group produces sophisti-
cated versions of popular (lances, often performing the
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200110050 -8

in .holding public opinion. Kadin. however, is the
most imporlanl formal chatuuel of conitimnication 1'or
the coun'ry as it whole, reaching the largest audience,
.1 effectiveness of radio is nonetheless limited b% the
practice of using Spanish ill almost all broadcasts.
thereby exchaling large uunbers of lucliaus.
Although the government operates libraries, rums
the telephone system, registers pullications. :lid
licenses radio and television stations, dw mass
contnunications media are largely ill the kinds of
private enterprise. All of till- importtuit formal media
are Iceatl-d in the capital, including the principal daily
ril-wspapers, the major radio stations all of the
publishing houses, all of the television stations, and
the first -class 111vaIvrs. In u(I(Iition, the c,cpila1
cutttairts most -()f' tlte- telephones ill the country,
The Constitution guarantees freedom of till- press
and of expression, Althutigh various statutes itnpint;e
scnl-wliat ur; these coristitulioual previsions,
comparative freedom prevails. Since 19.41, formal
censorship has been sporadic, occurring only during
periods of political crisis. It wiv, imposed, forexamlIc,
after till- deposa: of President Miguel 1'digoras I dientes
i:i 1963 and aflcr the assassivaIions of I.'. S.
Ambassador John Cordon Win in 1968 caul W
German Anibassaulor Karl von Spreti ill 19
Normally, however, governmental interference has
been slight. in large part because till media,
works of Cuatemulan choreographers. One of the most
admired is the ballet based on till- life of Maxirnon, a
legendary figum venerated by till ludians of Santiago
Atitlan.
J. Communications media (1 /OU)
Largely `1eccinsc of linguistic barriers. loco levels of
functional literacy, and inadequate financial 111( 1
technical resources, the mass media are nol we ll
developed. Accordingly, word -of -mouth remains
important as a rncans by which news and opinion
reach large segments of the population, especially in
rural areas. In small tow-tis, the weekly market and the
periodic religious observances, bo,h of which bring
Iitrge numbers of people together, afford un
opportunity for the exchange of news 111(1 views.
Itinerant vendors and bus drivers are also important
sources of uvws in the countryside. In urban centers,
the daily press is the most influential median) among
middle and upper class elements an(I plays it key role
FIGURE 25. Dance of the voladores, or pole
dance. The performers, representing birds,
swing slowly down a 50 -foot pole to the
accompaniment of marimba music. (U /OU)
.33
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FIGURE 24. A chirimia, a native wind instrument
utilizing a double reed (U /OU)

recognizing that their cuutiuued existence amd
prosperity depend upon fnvomble official reactimi,
exercise reslruinl in their c�overagc of' sensitive
dcvclopritcnts. This form of "self censorship" [ills been
compounded as at result of the assussimition or
atte+ripted lassassi fl iori of several prominent
nowspupertncu.
Relations between the medial and t he Ammt
administrution were stratified by the estrietions i,
force during the ye long stole of siege from
November 1970 until November 1971. Newspaperimvt
complained that the prohibition on prthlishing news
that might ",ditrm the populace" was all times
interpreted to lnclucle any conurteul unfuvomble to
the goverrinicnt. Moreover, press circles have
condemned a penal code revision in 1971 that makes
journalists who rationulize terrorist acts liable for 2
years i fit prisonrncnt. Marty newsp ipertnem hove
complained that because the government guidelines
are vague, they often do not know what cuff be
printed. In cures of doubt, publishers arc cxpccted to
list official handc;uts, Sensational newspapers arc
particularly hard hit (tiring periods of restricliou.
On occasion, restrictions b;tvc been plural on
foreign newspapers and periodicals for alleged
misrepresentation of (:uatcrrtalan political develop
ments. 1'residew Aroma is reported to be particular!^
sersitive to his country's image ibroild, hilt officio)
ulte',ittts t: suppress unfwomble inlortim(ion hove
sonic-times huckfired, as even more d:inmging versions
Of fin incident appe it outside the country� ;1n
inhibiting influence ot limiting I'rcedom of* expression
is the existence of the well -org mized and vociferous
Associ;,tion of Journalists of (:matemlala (Ai'(:). w hich
has on ttutncrous occasions championed the rights of
threatened newsr;uCn, dcrumuicing both govermncnl
censorship and lerrorot activities.
fLidiO and telvvision broadcasting are rcgi+ltcd
through the Directorate Gt,ueral of Nation;tl Radio
Broadcasting and 'Television, which operates
government stations ur,:i liccuses and supervises
private stations. Licenses Wray he suspended if
programs arc too critical of the governnivnt, but
recourse to such action has rarely been Luken, us
station owners generally prac,ticc rnorc self restraint
during periods of crisis than do newspaper publishers.
For at time during tht, Arbenz a(ministrotion only
ternponiry licenses, iovok ible it will, were grunted ill
an attempt to control clundestinc mitigovernrnent
broadcasts, and in 1954 amlatemr radio operations were
suppressed briefly for the some reason. More recently,
action has been taken to regal itc the content of news
reports; at least one radio newspaper (rudioperiodico)
54
wits ordered off life lair for "repettledly broadcasting
inform; lion crtusing aflarm mid unrest."
The govcnumvil hus also utlernpled to regulate
broadcaslittg activities through limitlatioris on foreign
ownership land direction of radio stations, In 1970, the
Arun.t :tdminislratiou decreed that preference ht, given
to pngratns produced Fy Guatemalan nutimmis and
that ownership land ditorial responsibility he lirttited
to native -horn Gmaleniiihms or to corporations in
which (;tt;itcrn;rl hcid it fmij inti rest.
mil ;nium power requirements for rmlio slulions Dave
also been estublishecl iii art effort to eliminate tnull
and often irresponsible stations, In general, however,
grumps represruling the cornrntutications media have
berm able to block the enactment of strict censorship
laws on (ht, grounds that such nivasmres would in1�ringe
ou 1'reedom of expression as guaranteed by the
corstit
1. Prir.cc!d matter
Despite [hailed circulutiou, newspapers ph iv
significant role ill communications because of their
readership anumg decisioffniaking groups, I be upper
Mid middle classes, and such spacial interest groups its
studerih and trmle unionists. Sophisticated readers,
however, constitute onl la sril ill porticn of newspuper
readership� To :ttract t[ie largest possible audience,
roost news is reported in it scnsitionul manner with
extensive use of photogniphs. Filcluul objcclivity is not
conitnc n. and tunny organizolions amd government
agencies utilize the "fufu," or bribe, to perstimle
reporters to write stories fuvomble to their interests.
As i general rule, papers cunccnlmty on local news;
they devote little attention to foreign or internutiotmtl
news, Ilthntlgll most subscribe to ortc or more of the
international wire services. Perhaps the largest
iiirornwtion gap is the paucity of covenige given to
(ventral Ame ricou news� This hack sterns from the
sparse attention given such news by life wire service
and from the fact that papers seldom station
correspondents in other Central American countries.
Ilistorically, newspapers have been established to
propogate the views of certain groups. After 1944,
journalism became more professional is opposition
newspapers were estuhlishcd, signed columns replacer)
the a non yrnoits attack, and a department of
journalism w is opcfft,d at the t.'niversity of San Carlos,
During ti 1944 period, a wide range of newspaper
opinion flourished, setting the stage for the
development of it more modern press.
In 1972, nine dailies were published in Cuotetri :du
City (Fignre 26), along with Headlines, it mirneo-
graphe( news summary in English. Circulation of the
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FIGURE 26. Guatemala City dally newspapers, 1972 MOW
IIATK
KWrAIII.INIICI c11/CUI ATJON
arMAI1KN
MARIO aK CIrNTn6AMknteA. INNO 12, No llffielal government newmpnper; absorbod /a l unlrmalleco In
Mardi 1072.
Dteaw rt, Ext-m- rAnnn....... 1071 1.111
KI. 01tAricn 1061 t35,000
LA NnIIA 11144 12,0110
HI, IMPACTO I069 6,01111
KI, IMPAnCIAI 1022 15,000 20,000
LA NAC'ION 11170 110,0011
I'ItKNSA l,lalll' 1050 ntl, slow
i ,A TAitim 1071 I f ,0011
nit Datlt not avalluble.
nine papers was approximately 175,000, Willi an
estimated five readers per copy, these papers reach
about one- third of the Ladino popttlatio... Daily
papers in Coban and (,Iuezaltclango, as well as
weekly. monthly, and quarterly newspapers, have it
combined sire atiori that is probably equal to about
titres,- fourths that of the dailies of the capital,
although no exact figures arc available.
Wcekly newspapers ins -lade Ateria, ,tit extreine
rightist paper with a low circulation; Verhurn, the
official newspaper of the Roman Catholic hierarchy;
and Yu, a small lnti- American, auli- Cotntnttrlisl
propaganda sheet. Conirriunist organizations m1blish
several papers and biMetins clandestinely. Verdad, el
weekly, probably has the widesi circulation; others
include+ Vanguardia Proletaria, El (:rito Popular, FAR,
Revolucion Socialixta, and El f,sludiante. All appear
spurL.lically and appeal to a limited sector of the
popillatiou.
The Netu York Times and the Miami Herald are
available In 0jatvniala City the day after imblication.
Latin Arneric;Ita editions of Newsweek, 7' -ne, send
Life, as well as the Mexican publication Vision, are
also available, although the two last named have been
temporarily banned. Guatemala has no nativiial news
magazine, hilt numerous periodicals are published by
t
g
k
a
Morning paper; Christiun Dentoeratic orientation; widest range
of editorial opinion; at Menem NenNutionulixt; published by Jorge
l'arplo Nienlle,
Issued al nlldlbty; III trlt list doltaliNt; ss,nsatlonallmt; published I,y
former Vied 1 t'limiente Marroquin Itojits and faith-
fully reflects IIN personal views; eonntxtently anti- Communist
and anti United Staters; criticizeN pace of reforn In tiuuteinala:
rarely In accord with tiny adininistratlon.
Morning paper; published by 0mcur Murroquin, Nun of Clemente
Marroquin Itojam; Iemm c�ontrovermial than La llnra, (if which it
IN It pals Imitation,
Moderately .conservative evening paper; anti- Coinnutolst: pro
United States; cuter? to foreign eommunit.y; curries mevontl 11,ti.
columnists; published by Alejandro Cordova,
INSUed at inidday; Independent; published by Handro Ponce
Monroy send 114-etsir Cifuentes,
Morning paper; (ivatenutia's insist populur and respected news-
paper; broad appeal; moderate, business oriented position:
immued ax it tabloid; published by Pedro JuUo Oureet K Co.
E,vening paper; menmationaHst; published by main- Interests em lie
Rrafiro and follows snit, hnsic position.
academic groups, private organizations, atiel
government agencies; these serve as information
organs, trade publications, and forums for particular
interest groups,
The publishing industry is small, producing mainly
inexpensive paperback hunks, Several research centers.
notably the Seminario de Integrarion Social
Guate nialleca, which operates under the aegis of the
Ministry of Public ISdticatiou, publishes scholarly
I, xks and monographs, while guveninient age ne -acs
and wgional organizations located it, (:u ;ltcnlulu
publish information for specialized attclienc'es under
various formats. Most hooks, however, are imported.
Although Guatemala permits the free importation of
books, the cost of books hlas cs them beyond the reach
of most of the literate popidatiou.
Only a handful of reasorvibly good libraries exit in
the country, and even these are handicapped by
inadequate budgets. In addition to the National
',ibrary, there are 78 public libraries, 29 specialized
libraries, 14 university libraries, and 36 school
libraries, almost none of which circulate books.
2. Radio and other media
!'adio, the Insist extensive and cfficicnt medium of
mass communications, reaclics at least half the
33
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population, inchuling persons in resole aro,s, Since
the advent o1' the tra nsistor radio, even poor Indiaun%
have access to radio Lroadeats, whereas previously the
lack of e!ectricity !it many areas precluded tlae use of
receivers. 'I'll(- nurnher of radios in its(- increased from
about 20 AX) (10 per 1,(1(1(1 inhabitants) in 1949 to
approximately 360,W) ((id per I,(XX) inhabitants in
1972, some 10% of which were connitinily radios
located in central plazas of towns or in places of public
gathering in agricultural communities.
Radio, like other forms o1' mass comniannicalions, is
controlled by and almost cxclusivel% oriented to
Ladinos. I",xtrenn�ly few programs are broadcast in
Indian languages, and relatively I'ew Indians
understand enough Spanish to listen with ease to
broadcasts in that language. Thus, the extent to which
the Indian's isolation 1'ronn national society is
ameliorated through radio is probably minimal. A few
local stations provide programs in English. and sone
broadcasts in the Kekchi language are heard over
Radio Havana.
As few privately owned stations have facilities for
broadcasting live programs, recorded music fills t -lost
programing time, Information broadcasts are limited
for the most part to news, with the exception of those
transmitted by Radio Naciunul, the govcrnrnent-
owned station, which also offers programs on gent.. ;.al
culture, health, and agriculture. Missionary -owned
and operated stations provide both religious and
cultural programing. Among the most popnnlar
lroadcasts are the radioperiodieus, which emphasize
the sensational aspects of the news and in sonic
respects enuLat. newspapers, Radio is also sad b
private individuals for sending messages or for seeking
jobs, and occasionally for transmitting critical political
corn rnen to ries.
Along with its station in the capital Radio Nadanal
operates stations in Flores, Mazatenungo, Mira
mundo, Puerto Barrios, Qw-zaltenangc, San Marcos,
and Totoniepan. Although there is no national
network, Radio Naciunal broadcasts can be relayed in
an emergency to all stations to achieve nationwide
coverage.
One government and two private television stations
arc located in the capital, and approximately 90,000
receivers are in use. The cost of a receiver limits the use
of television to the middle and upper classes. Stations
are usually on the air from early morning until night,
hot rarely transmit as late as midnight. Scheduling is
,ornewhat haphazard, With the exception of sonic
relayed telecasts from Mexico, programing consists for
the most part of imported entertainment shows from
the United States. Lase of translation in large ineasme
56
delermines progaan selection. Live trograms are
priinaril give -away eluiz shows, children's prograns,
or drainatic tsrescnlutiuus, News pngrains am
underdeveloped by U.S, standards. as television is not
generally considered all important sourc eI' newi or a
molder of ptehlic opinion, There arc as yet few good
television news reporters, commentators, or canera-
men. News prugrans offer little in the way o1
illuslrutive films, but usuall: resart to still photographs
accompanied by a description from the? reporter, As a
result, television has had little impact on newsy ;apers
and radio in the dissemination aJ news and is not set
considered in important political 1'oruin,
Motion pictures are a popular form of enlerhain-
ment ;among the urhan population, although It
income levels limit the audience. 'I'hrooghnut the
1960's. attendance averaged 9,8 million per year, witl
theaters in the Departeuerst of Gnaleinala accounting
fur tlree- fifths of the total. As (if' 1969, there were 10.5
theaters, inclucling one drive -in: 28 were located in the
Department of Giiatenala, I'cature hIrns are
imported, primarily from the united States; filins froth
Mexico. Argentina, and We.stem h,i ope are also
clown.
K. Selected bibliography (U /OU)
Adams, liichard N. Crucifixion by Power. Anslin:
University of Texas Press. 1969. A collection of essays
on the social stricture during the 19- 1.1 -66 period.
emphasizing the power structore and the rnechanisrtas
tnscd to maintain it.
Asturias \'alenzucla, Ricardo. "The Sickness
Insurance Scheme in Ciiatensala," International
Social Sevitiih/ Review, vol. 22. no. 2, pp. 211-220,
1969. A useful brief summary of social security by a
former director of IGSS and author of all recent social
security plans.
Chinchilla Aguilar, Ernesto. 11isforia dcl uric en
Guatemala, 1524- 1962. Guatemala: Ministerio do
Educacion Publica. 1962. Although overemphasizing
architecture, this art history provides valuable
information, particularly on the colonial period.
Colby, Benjamin N. and Pierre Van Den Berghe.
Ixil country, Berkeley: University of California Press.
1060. A case study of the Ixil group in the west central
highlands, emphasizing recent cultural changes.
Fidler, Leigh A., S. J. Catholic Missionary 14 ork
and National Development in Guatemala, 193-68
The Maryknoll Experience. Unpublished M.A. thesis,
New York University. 1971. An in -depth study of the
impact of Maryk rctivities in the Department of
1 1 uchuctenango.
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f.
Gould, P. R. and Sparks, J, I' "The Geographical
Context of Human Diets in Southwest Guatemala,"
Geographical Review, no. 59, pp, 58 -82, jaimary
191;9. A discussion of the effect of cultural preferences
and agricultural limitatic tis on nutrition.
Guatemala. Conssjo Nacional de Phanificac�ior
Economica. flan de desarrollo nacional, 1971-7.5.
Vols. 1 and IL Guatemala. 1970, A summary of
exisdrig social and economic conditicm together with
a blueprint for development in the next 5 years.
Hill, George W. aml Manuel Goll:as, The
Minifundia Economy and Society of the Guatennlan
11:ghland Indian, Maulisor: University of 'Xisconsin
Land 'Tenure (;enter, Research Paper No, 30. July
1968. A useful work on social and economic conditions
in the highlands as compared with the rest of the
country,
Inter- American Committee for Agricultural
Development, Tenencia de la Herra y desarrollo socio-
econontico de Guaternala. Washington, 11).G! Pant
American Union. 1965. A major study of land tenure
and its relation to socioeconomic devsloptrtcnt;
contains valuable information on the income and
living conditions of all categories of farmers,
Mayers, Marvin K. Languages of'Guaterrtala, The
Vaguer: Mouton and Co. 1966, A detailed description
of the customs of various Indian language groups,
Micklin, Michael, "Urbanization, Technology and
Traditional Values ill Guaternala: Sortie Conse�cluences
of a Changing Social Strteture,�� Social Forces. vol,
47, no. 4, pp, 4:38 -447, June 1969. A study of tits
effects of industrialization and urbanization on the
uricctation of personal values in Guatemala City.
Moriteforte Toledo, P.Iario. Guatemala: monografia
social. Mexico City: Univsrsidacl Nacional Autonoma
ds Mexico. 1959. A valuable sociological treatise by a
sympathi�rer of the revolutionary movement; contains
excellent analyses but some undocumented statistics.
Osborne, Lilly De Jotgh. Indian Crafts of
Guatemala and El Salvador. Norman: University of
Oklahoma Press. 1965. An excellent descriptive and
photographic treatment of all types of handicrafts
with explanations of tlicir social and economic
significance.
Roberts, Bryan R. "Protestant Groups and Coping
with Urban Life in Guaternala City, American
Journal of Sociology, vol. 73, no, 6, pp. 753 -767, May
1968. A discussion on the significance of Protestantism
in two low income, Catholic neighborhoods.
Raja` I -ima, Flavio. C: crosideraciones,eweruerales xobre
la sociedad guatentalleca, Guatetttala: Ministerio de
1 ?clucac�ion Publica. 1967. 1n c�xanrinutiun of class and
cultural altitudes as tits basis for Inelian- Ladino
prejudievs.
Schmid. Lester. The Role of Migratory Labor in the
Economic Ievelopment of Guatemala. Madison:
University (if Wisconsin Land Tenure Center.
Research Paper Nu, 22. July 1967. A stucly of the living
auul working cunditiotis of the sizable group of
seasonal migrant workers in highland Indian society.
Solorz.ano Carlos, Tealro en Guatemala. Madrid:
Editorial Aguilar. 1964, A collection of theatrical
works by five Guaternalan playwrights. with a useful
introduction on the development of the theater since
colonial times,
Stavenhagen, Rodolfo. C:lases, c�olonialismo. y
aculturacion. Guatemala: Serninariu de Intergracion
Social Guatemalteco. (madernos No. 19. 1968. A
characterization of intervdiiiie relations as a form of
"internal colonialism" resulting from the scan m is
clontinance of tits Ladinos.
�Thcsing. Josef. "La pnlitica (-it Grtatemada,
,riportes, nu. 21, pp. 30 -60. July 1971. An excellent
analysis of tltc dichotomia�s in Guatemalan society by
the director of the Political Scicncs Institute at liad'acl
Lanclivar University.
Thompson. Donald I Maya Paganism and
Christianity: A History of the Fusion of Tu;o
Religions. New Orleans: Tulime University, Middle
American Research Itstitutsr 1954. An excellent
treatment of Indian religion.
\'out Den Berghc, Pierre L. "Ethnic Membership
aml 0iltural Change in Guatemala," Somal Forces,
vol. -46, stn. 4, pp. 51.1 -522, June 1968. A study of the
process of laclinoization.
Villamil, Joss A, "Situac�ion clemografica ds
Guatemala y sus efectos socioecortomicos," Journal of
Inter- American Studies, vol. J3, tit), 2, pp. 197.215,
;%pril 197 1. A study of ills socioeconomic effects of ills
rapid rate of growth.
Waggoner, George L. and Barbara. Education in
Central America. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Depart-
ment of Health, Education, an(l Welfare. June 1969.
A useful compendi im and analy.,is of information on
education.
Whetten, Naatban L. Guatemala, the land and the
I'eonle. New haven: Vale University Pres, 1961. The
fundamental treatment of the� major sociological
aspects, with emphasis on rural living conditions.
57
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C0%F1nr:N'T1n1.
Gionary (9 /09)
Aaanevurrux
sPANM
XMIAM
AEU
Asociacion de Estudiantes Universi-
Association of University Students
tarios
AGA
Asociaoton Guatemalteca de Agricul-
Guatemalan Association of Agricul-
tores
turalists
APC
Asociacton de Periodistas de Guate-
Association of Journalists of Guate-
mala
mala
CALIF
Comite Coordinador de Asotiaciones
Coordinating Committee of Associa-
Agricolas, Comerclales, Industriales
tions of Agriculture, Commerce,
V Financieras
Industry, and Finance
CLAT
Confederation Latinoamericana do
Latin American Confederation' of
Trabaladores
Workers
CNCr,
Confederation Nacional de Campesi-
National Confederation of Cuate-
nos Guatemaltecos
malan Peasants
CNT
Confederation Nacional de Trabalu-
National Confederation of Workers
dores
CONSICUA
Confederation Sindical de Guatemala
Trade Union Confederation of Cua-
temala
CONT RACUA
Con f ederaaion de Trabaladores de
Confederation of Workers of Cuate-
Guatemala
mala
CTF
Central de Trabaladores Federados
Central of Federated Workers
DCG
Democracia Cristiana Guatemalteca
Guatemalan Christian Democracy
[partyl
FASCUA
Federation Autonoma S(ndical de
Autonomous Trade Union Federation
Guatemala
of Guatemala
FCC
Federation Campesina de Guatemala
Peasant Federation of Guatemala
FECETRAC
Federation Central de Trabaladores
Central Federation of Workers of
de Guatemala
Guatemala
FENOT
Federation Nacional de Obreros del
National Federation of Transport
Transporte
Workers
FESC
Frente Estudiantil Socialcristiano
Social Christian Student Front
FRU
Frente Revolutionario Unioersitario
University Revolutionary Front
ICSS
Instituto Guatemalteco de Seguridad
Guatemalan Institute of Social Se-
Social
curity
INCAP
Instituto Nutridonal de Centroamer-
Nutritional Institute of Centra! Amer-
ica p Panama
ica and Panama
I NTA
Instituto Nadonal para Transf orma-
National Institute for Agrarian Be-
don Agraria
form
INVI
Instituto Nacional de Vivienda
National Institute of Housing
MCI
Movimiento Campesino Independiente
Independent Peasant Movement
MLN
Movimiento de Liberation Nacional
National Liberation Movement
ORIT
Organization Regional Interamericana
Inter- American Regional Organiza-
de Trabaladores
tion of Workers
PGT
Fartido Guatemalteco de Trabalo
Guatemalan Labor Party (Commu-
nist party)
PNDC
Programa Nacional de Desarrollo de
National Community Development
la Comunidad
Program
PR
Partido Reuolucionario
Revolutionary Party
SAMF
Sindicato de Action V Meloramiento
Union of Railroad Workers' Action
de los Ferrocarrilleros
and Betterment
SNE;
Servicio Nacional de Empleo
National Employment Service
Asociacion de Amigos del Pais
Association of Friends of the Country
Asociacion Pro- Bienestar de la Fami-
Guatemalan Family Welfare Assoeia-
lia de Guatemala
tion
Asociacion de Bienestar Infantil
Association of Infant Welfare
luventud Revolucionaria
Revolutionary Youth
58 NO FOREIGN DISSEM
CON F1DEINPIAL
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Places and features referred to in this Chapter (U /OU)
VOORDM ATY.R
CONFIDENTIAL
v
c
i
I
g i
1
CONFIDENTIAL NO FOREIGN DISSEM
59
1 `'1L. w f. r Tx .,h a y th;;k ^tSr J v `r
i x r
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Y ,v.
u
Antigua Guatemala
14 34
90 4S
Cantel
14 49
11 27
Chimal tenango
14 40
90 49
Chigrimuia
14 48
89 33
Coatepeque
14 42
91 52
Cobin
15 -)9
90 19
Escuintla
14 is
90 47
F equipulas
14 34
89 21
Flores
16 56
89 53
Guatemala City (or Guatemala)..........
14 38
90 31
H uehuetenango
15 20
91 28
I%-.An locality
15 49
91 0.1
Jalapa
14 :38
89 59 I
Lago de Atitlin (lake)
14 42
91 10
Lago de Izabal (take)
15 30
89 10
Livingston
15 50
88 45
Masatenango
14 32
91 30
Miramundo
14 33
90 06 i
Momostenango
15 04
91 24
Puerto barrios
15 43
88 36
Queae ltenango
14 50
91 31
Quiriqui
15 16
89 05
Retalhuleu
14 32
91 41 i
Rio Sebol (stream)
16 00
89 59
San Juan Ixcoy
15 :3ti
i
91 27
San Juan Sacate.0quea
14 43
90 39
Sap. Marcos
14 58
91 48 4
Santiago Aitlin
14 :38
91 14
Sebol (archaeological site)
1.) 47
89 50
Tikal
17 20
89 39
Tiquisate
14 17
91 22
Totonicapin
14 55
91 22
Zacana
14 5S
8 9 32 i
v
c
i
I
g i
1
CONFIDENTIAL NO FOREIGN DISSEM
59
1 `'1L. w f. r Tx .,h a y th;;k ^tSr J v `r
i x r
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h
CONFIDENTIAL
NO FOREIGN DISSEM
F
rr1
y L
7
uE
S
f
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ir
i
i
i
S
y L
7
uE
S
f
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