Introduction
Background
The peoples of Mongolia have a long history under a number of nomadic empires dating back to the period of the Xiongnu in the 4th century B.C. The name Mongol goes back to at least the 11th century A.D. The most famous Mongol, TEMÜÜJIN (aka Genghis Khan) emerged as the ruler of all Mongols in the early 1200s. By the time of his death in 1227, he had created through conquest a Mongol Empire that extended across much of Eurasia. His descendants, including ÖGÖDEI and KHUBILAI (aka Kublai Khan), continued military campaigns of conquest, taking control of Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and the rest of China where KHUBILAI established the Yuan Dynasty in the 1270s. The Mongols attempted to invade Japan and Java before their empire broke apart in the 14th century. In the 17th century, Mongolia fell under the rule of the Manchus of the Chinese Qing Dynasty. Following the collapse of the Manchus in 1911, Mongolia declared its independence, achieving it with help from the Soviet Union in 1921. Mongolia became a socialist state (the Mongolian People’s Republic) in 1924. Following independence and until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989, the country was a Soviet satellite state, and heavily reliant on economic, military, and political assistance from Moscow. The period also was marked by purges, political repression, economic stagnation, and tensions with China.
Mongolia peacefully transitioned to an independent democracy in 1990. In 1992, it adopted a new constitution and established a free market economy. Since the country's transition, it has conducted a series of successful presidential and legislative elections. Throughout the period, the ex-communist Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) - which took the name Mongolian People’s Party (MPP) in 2010 - has competed for political power with the Democratic Party (DP) and several other smaller parties. In the 2016 parliamentary elections, the MPP won overwhelming control of the Parliament over the DP, which had overseen a sharp decline in Mongolia’s economy during its control of the Parliament in the preceding years. Mongolians elected a DP member, Khaltmaa BATTULGA, as president in 2017. The June 2020 parliamentary elections left the MPP with continued dominant control of the parliament. Mongolians elected former prime minister and MPP member Ukhnaa KHURELSUKH as president in 2021.
Mongolia maintains close cultural, political, and military ties with Russia while China is its largest economic partner. Mongolia’s foreign relations are focused on preserving its autonomy by balancing relations with China and Russia, as well as its other major partners, Japan, South Korea, and the US.
Visit the Definitions and Notes page to view a description of each topic.
Geography
Location
Northern Asia, between China and Russia
Geographic coordinates
46 00 N, 105 00 E
Map references
Asia
Area - comparative
slightly smaller than Alaska; more than twice the size of Texas
Land boundaries
total: 8,082 km
border countries (2): China 4,630 km; Russia 3,452 km
Coastline
0 km (landlocked)
Maritime claims
none (landlocked)
Climate
desert; continental (large daily and seasonal temperature ranges)
Terrain
vast semidesert and desert plains, grassy steppe, mountains in west and southwest; Gobi Desert in south-central
Elevation
highest point: Nayramadlin Orgil (Khuiten Peak) 4,374 m
lowest point: Hoh Nuur 560 m
mean elevation: 1,528 m
Natural resources
oil, coal, copper, molybdenum, tungsten, phosphates, tin, nickel, zinc, fluorspar, gold, silver, iron
Land use
agricultural land: 73% (2018 est.)
arable land: 0.4% (2018 est.)
permanent crops: 0% (2018 est.)
permanent pasture: 72.6% (2018 est.)
forest: 7% (2018 est.)
other: 20% (2018 est.)
Irrigated land
602 sq km (2020)
Major lakes (area sq km)
fresh water lake(s): Hovsgol Nuur - 2,620 sq km; Har Us Nuur - 1,760 sq km;
salt water lake(s): Uvs Nuur - 3,350 sq km; Hyargas Nuur - 1,360 sq km
Major rivers (by length in km)
Amur (shared with China [s] and Russia [m]) - 4,444 km
note – [s] after country name indicates river source; [m] after country name indicates river mouth
Population distribution
sparsely distributed population throughout the country; the capital of Ulaanbaatar and the northern city of Darhan support the highest population densities
Natural hazards
dust storms; grassland and forest fires; drought; "zud," which is harsh winter conditions
Geography - note
landlocked; strategic location between China and Russia
People and Society
Population
3,255,468 (2023 est.)
note: Mongolia is one of the least densely populated countries in the world (2 people per sq km); twice as many ethnic Mongols (some 6 million) live in Inner Mongolia (Nei Mongol) in neighboring China
comparison ranking: 133
Nationality
noun: Mongolian(s)
adjective: Mongolian
Ethnic groups
Khalkh 83.8%, Kazak 3.8%, Durvud 2.6%, Bayad 2%, Buriad 1.4%, Zakhchin 1.2%, Dariganga 1.1%, other 4.1% (2020 est.)
Languages
Mongolian 90% (official) (Khalkha dialect is predominant), Turkic, Russian (1999)
major-language sample(s):
Дэлхийн баримтат ном, үндсэн мэдээллийн зайлшгүй эх сурвалж. (Mongolian)
The World Factbook, the indispensable source for basic information.
Religions
Buddhist 51.7%, Muslim 3.2%, Shamanist 2.5%, Christian 1.3%, other 0.7%, none 40.6% (2020 est.)
Age structure
0-14 years: 26.16% (male 434,400/female 417,335)
15-64 years: 68.24% (male 1,076,692/female 1,144,759)
65 years and over: 5.6% (2023 est.) (male 73,245/female 109,037)
Dependency ratios
total dependency ratio: 58.4
youth dependency ratio: 51.4
elderly dependency ratio: 7
potential support ratio: 14.3 (2021 est.)
Median age
total: 29.8 years
male: 28.8 years
female: 30.7 years (2020 est.)
comparison ranking: total 126
Population distribution
sparsely distributed population throughout the country; the capital of Ulaanbaatar and the northern city of Darhan support the highest population densities
Urbanization
urban population: 69.1% of total population (2023)
rate of urbanization: 1.4% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.)
Major urban areas - population
1.673 million ULAANBAATAR (capital) (2023)
Sex ratio
at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
0-14 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 0.94 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.67 male(s)/female
total population: 0.95 male(s)/female (2023 est.)
Mother's mean age at first birth
20.5 years (2008 est.)
note: data represents median age at first birth among women 20-24
Infant mortality rate
total: 19.77 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 22.81 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 16.59 deaths/1,000 live births (2023 est.)
comparison ranking: total 79
Life expectancy at birth
total population: 71.65 years
male: 67.49 years
female: 76.02 years (2023 est.)
comparison ranking: total population 167
Gross reproduction rate
0.92 (2023 est.)
Contraceptive prevalence rate
48.1% (2018)
Drinking water source
improved: urban: 98.4% of population
rural: 64.2% of population
total: 87.6% of population
unimproved: urban: 1.6% of population
rural: 35.8% of population
total: 12.4% of population (2020 est.)
Current health expenditure
4.9% of GDP (2020)
Physicians density
3.85 physicians/1,000 population (2018)
Hospital bed density
8 beds/1,000 population (2017)
Sanitation facility access
improved: urban: 97.4% of population
rural: 69.9% of population
total: 88.8% of population
unimproved: urban: 2.6% of population
rural: 30.1% of population
total: 11.2% of population (2020 est.)
Alcohol consumption per capita
total: 5.46 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est.)
beer: 2.18 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est.)
wine: 1.46 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est.)
spirits: 1.82 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est.)
other alcohols: 0 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est.)
comparison ranking: total 80
Tobacco use
total: 29.4% (2020 est.)
male: 51.7% (2020 est.)
female: 7.1% (2020 est.)
comparison ranking: total 33
Currently married women (ages 15-49)
58.9% (2023 est.)
Child marriage
women married by age 15: 0.9%
women married by age 18: 12%
men married by age 18: 2.1% (2018 est.)
Literacy
definition: age 15 and over can read and write
total population: 99.2%
male: 99.1%
female: 99.2% (2020)
School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)
total: 15 years
male: 14 years
female: 16 years (2019)
Youth unemployment rate (ages 15-24)
total: 21%
male: 20.1%
female: 22.4% (2021 est.)
comparison ranking: total 77
Environment
Environment - current issues
limited natural freshwater resources in some areas; the burning of soft coal in power plants and the lack of enforcement of environmental laws leads to air pollution in Ulaanbaatar; deforestation and overgrazing increase soil erosion from wind and rain; water pollution; desertification and mining activities have a deleterious effect on the environment
Environment - international agreements
party to: Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Climate Change-Paris Agreement, Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Climate
desert; continental (large daily and seasonal temperature ranges)
Land use
agricultural land: 73% (2018 est.)
arable land: 0.4% (2018 est.)
permanent crops: 0% (2018 est.)
permanent pasture: 72.6% (2018 est.)
forest: 7% (2018 est.)
other: 20% (2018 est.)
Urbanization
urban population: 69.1% of total population (2023)
rate of urbanization: 1.4% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.)
Air pollutants
particulate matter emissions: 40.42 micrograms per cubic meter (2016 est.)
carbon dioxide emissions: 25.37 megatons (2016 est.)
methane emissions: 13.72 megatons (2020 est.)
Waste and recycling
municipal solid waste generated annually: 2.9 million tons (2016 est.)
Major lakes (area sq km)
fresh water lake(s): Hovsgol Nuur - 2,620 sq km; Har Us Nuur - 1,760 sq km;
salt water lake(s): Uvs Nuur - 3,350 sq km; Hyargas Nuur - 1,360 sq km
Major rivers (by length in km)
Amur (shared with China [s] and Russia [m]) - 4,444 km
note – [s] after country name indicates river source; [m] after country name indicates river mouth
Total water withdrawal
municipal: 50 million cubic meters (2020 est.)
industrial: 170 million cubic meters (2020 est.)
agricultural: 250 million cubic meters (2020 est.)
Total renewable water resources
34.8 billion cubic meters (2020 est.)
Government
Country name
conventional long form: none
conventional short form: Mongolia
local long form: none
local short form: Mongol Uls
former: Outer Mongolia, Mongolian People's Republic
etymology: the name means "Land of the Mongols" in Latin; the Mongolian name Mongol Uls translates as "Mongol State"
Government type
semi-presidential republic
Capital
name: Ulaanbaatar
geographic coordinates: 47 55 N, 106 55 E
time difference: UTC+8 (13 hours ahead of Washington, DC, during Standard Time)
daylight saving time: +1hr, begins last Saturday in March; ends last Saturday in September
time zone note: Mongolia has two time zones - Ulaanbaatar Time (8 hours in advance of UTC) and Hovd Time (7 hours in advance of UTC)
etymology: the name means "red hero" in Mongolian and honors national hero Damdin SUKHBAATAR, leader of the partisan army that with Soviet Red Army help, liberated Mongolia from Chinese occupation in the early 1920s
Administrative divisions
21 provinces (aymguud, singular - aymag) and 1 municipality* (singular - hot); Arhangay, Bayanhongor, Bayan-Olgiy, Bulgan, Darhan-Uul, Dornod, Dornogovi, Dundgovi, Dzavhan (Zavkhan), Govi-Altay, Govisumber, Hentiy, Hovd, Hovsgol, Omnogovi, Orhon, Ovorhangay, Selenge, Suhbaatar, Tov, Ulaanbaatar*, Uvs
Independence
29 December 1911 (independence declared from China; in actuality, autonomy attained); 11 July 1921 (from China)
National holiday
Naadam (games) holiday (commemorates independence from China in the 1921 Revolution), 11-15 July; Constitution Day (marks the date that the Mongolian People's Republic was created under a new constitution), 26 November (1924)
Constitution
history: several previous; latest adopted 13 January 1992, effective 12 February 1992
amendments: proposed by the State Great Hural, by the president of the republic, by the government, or by petition submitted to the State Great Hural by the Constitutional Court; conducting referenda on proposed amendments requires at least two-thirds majority vote of the State Great Hural; passage of amendments by the State Great Hural requires at least three-quarters majority vote; passage by referendum requires majority participation of qualified voters and a majority of votes; amended 1999, 2000, 2019
Legal system
civil law system influenced by Soviet and Romano-Germanic legal systems; constitution ambiguous on judicial review of legislative acts
International law organization participation
has not submitted an ICJ jurisdiction declaration; accepts ICCt jurisdiction
Citizenship
citizenship by birth: no
citizenship by descent only: both parents must be citizens of Mongolia; one parent if born within Mongolia
dual citizenship recognized: no
residency requirement for naturalization: 5 years
Suffrage
18 years of age; universal
Executive branch
chief of state: President Ukhnaagiin KHURELSUKH (since 25 June 2021)
head of government: Prime Minister Luvsannamsrai OYUN-ERDENE (since 27 January 2021); Deputy Prime Minister Sainbuyen AMARSAIKHAN (since 8 September 2022)
cabinet: directly appointed by the prime minister following a constitutional amendment ratified in November 2019; prior to the amendment, the cabinet was nominated by the prime minister in consultation with the president and confirmed by the State Great Hural (parliament)
elections/appointments: presidential candidates nominated by political parties represented in the State Great Hural and directly elected by simple majority popular vote for one 6-year term; election last held on 9 June 2021; following legislative elections, the leader of the majority party or majority coalition is usually elected prime minister by the State Great Hural
election results: Ukhnaagiin KHURELSUKH elected president in first round; percent of vote - Ukhnaagiin KHURELSUKH (MPP) 72%, Dangaasuren ENKHBAT (RPEC) 21.6%, Sodnomzundui ERDENE (DP) 6.4%
Legislative branch
description: unicameral State Great Hural or Ulsyn Ikh Khural (76 seats; members directly elected in single-seat constituencies by simple majority vote; each constituency requires at least 50% voter participation for the poll to be valid; members serve 4-year terms)
elections: last held on 24 June 2020 (next to be held in 2024)
election results: percent of vote by party - MPP 44.9%, DP 24.5%, Our Coalition 8.1%, independent 8.7%, Right Person Electorate Coalition 5.2%, other 8.5%; seats by party - MPP 62, DP 11, Our Coalition 1, Right Person Electorate Coalition 1; independent 1; composition - 63 men, 13 women; percent of women 17.1%
Judicial branch
highest court(s): Supreme Court (consists of the Chief Justice and 24 judges organized into civil, criminal, and administrative chambers); Constitutional Court or Tsets (consists of the chairman and 8 members)
judge selection and term of office: Supreme Court chief justice and judges appointed by the president upon recommendation by the General Council of Courts - a 14-member body of judges and judicial officials - to the State Great Hural; appointment is for life; chairman of the Constitutional Court elected from among its members; members appointed from nominations by the State Great Hural - 3 each by the president, the State Great Hural, and the Supreme Court; appointment is 6 years; chairmanship limited to a single renewable 3-year term
subordinate courts: aimag (provincial) and capital city appellate courts; soum, inter-soum, and district courts; Administrative Cases Courts
Political parties and leaders
36 parties registered for the 2020 legislative elections to the State Great Hural; among them, the following parties won seats:
Democratic Party or DP [Sodnomzunduin ERDENE]
Mongolian People's Party or MPP [Ukhnaagiin KHURELSUKH]
others include:
Civil Will-Green Party or CWGP [Tserendorj GANKHUYAG]
Justice Party [Batbayar NASANBILEG]
Mongolian National Democratic Party or MNDP [Bayanjargal TSOGTGEREL]
Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party [Nambaryn ENKHBAYAR]
Mongolian Social Democratic Party or MSDP [Adiya GANBAATAR]
Mongolian Traditionally United Party or MTUP [Batdelgeriin BATBOLD]
National Labor Party or HUN [Togmidyn DORJKHAND]
Coalitions:
Our Coalition (MPRP, Civil Will-Green Party, and Mongolian Traditionally United Party)
Right Person Electorate Coalition or RPEC (National Labor Party, Mongolian Social Democratic Party, Justice Party) [Togmidyn DORJKHAND]
International organization participation
ADB, ARF, CD, CICA, CP, EBRD, EITI (compliant country), FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC (NGOs), ICCt, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, ITUC, MIGA, MINURSO, MONUSCO, NAM, OPCW, OSCE, SCO (observer), UN, UNAMID, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNISFA, UNMISS, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
Diplomatic representation in the US
chief of mission: Ambassador BATBAYAR Ulziidelger (since 1 December 2021)
chancery: 2833 M Street NW, Washington, DC 20007
telephone: [1] (202) 333-7117
FAX: [1] (202) 298-9227
email address and website:
washington@mfa.gov.mn
http://mongolianembassy.us/
consulate(s) general: New York, San Francisco
Diplomatic representation from the US
chief of mission: Ambassador Richard L. BUANGAN (since November 2022)
embassy: Denver Street #3, 11th Micro-District, Ulaanbaatar 14190
mailing address: 4410 Ulaanbaatar Place, Washington DC 20521-4410
telephone: [976] 7007-6001
FAX: [976] 7007-6174
email address and website:
UlaanbaatarACS@state.gov
https://mn.usembassy.gov/
Flag description
three, equal vertical bands of red (hoist side), blue, and red; centered on the hoist-side red band in yellow is the national emblem ("soyombo" - a columnar arrangement of abstract and geometric representation for fire, sun, moon, earth, water, and the yin-yang symbol); blue represents the sky, red symbolizes progress and prosperity
National symbol(s)
soyombo emblem; national colors: red, blue, yellow
National anthem
name: "Mongol ulsyn toriin duulal" (National Anthem of Mongolia)
lyrics/music: Tsendiin DAMDINSUREN/Bilegiin DAMDINSUREN and Luvsanjamts MURJORJ
note: music adopted 1950, lyrics adopted 2006; lyrics altered on numerous occasions
National heritage
total World Heritage Sites: 6 (4 cultural, 2 natural)
selected World Heritage Site locales: Uvs Nuur Basin (n); Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape (c); Petroglyphic Complexes of the Mongolian Altai (c); Great Burkhan Khaldun Mountain and surrounding sacred landscape (c); Landscapes of Dauria (n); Deer Stone Monuments and Related Bronze Age Sites (c)
Economy
Economic overview
lower middle-income East Asian economy; large human capital improvements over last 3 decades; agricultural and natural resource rich; export and consumption-led growth; high inflation due to supply bottlenecks and increased food and energy prices; currency depreciation
Real GDP (purchasing power parity)
$39.063 billion (2021 est.)
$38.434 billion (2020 est.)
$40.27 billion (2019 est.)
note: data are in 2017 dollars
comparison ranking: 124
Real GDP per capita
$11,700 (2021 est.)
$11,700 (2020 est.)
$12,500 (2019 est.)
note: data are in 2017 dollars
comparison ranking: 133
GDP (official exchange rate)
$11.14 billion (2017 est.)
Inflation rate (consumer prices)
7.35% (2021 est.)
3.8% (2020 est.)
7.3% (2019 est.)
comparison ranking: 42
Credit ratings
Fitch rating: B (2018)
Moody's rating: B3 (2018)
Standard & Poors rating: B (2018)
note: The year refers to the year in which the current credit rating was first obtained.
GDP - composition, by sector of origin
agriculture: 12.1% (2017 est.)
industry: 38.2% (2017 est.)
services: 49.7% (2017 est.)
comparison rankings: services 179; industry 38; agriculture 76
GDP - composition, by end use
household consumption: 49.2% (2017 est.)
government consumption: 12.3% (2017 est.)
investment in fixed capital: 23.8% (2017 est.)
investment in inventories: 12.4% (2017 est.)
exports of goods and services: 59.5% (2017 est.)
imports of goods and services: -57.1% (2017 est.)
Agricultural products
milk, wheat, goat milk, potatoes, mutton, sheep milk, beef, goat meat, horse meat, carrots/turnips
Industries
construction and construction materials; mining (coal, copper, molybdenum, fluorspar, tin, tungsten, gold); oil; food and beverages; processing of animal products, cashmere and natural fiber manufacturing
Labor force - by occupation
agriculture: 31.1%
industry: 18.5%
services: 50.5% (2016)
Youth unemployment rate (ages 15-24)
total: 21%
male: 20.1%
female: 22.4% (2021 est.)
comparison ranking: total 77
Population below poverty line
28.4% (2018 est.)
Household income or consumption by percentage share
lowest 10%: 13.7%
highest 10%: 5.7% (2017)
Budget
revenues: $3.699 billion (2020 est.)
expenditures: $4.979 billion (2020 est.)
Public debt
73.94% of GDP (2020 est.)
60.84% of GDP (2019 est.)
65.97% of GDP (2018 est.)
comparison ranking: 49
Fiscal year
calendar year
Current account balance
-$2.108 billion (2021 est.)
-$674.612 million (2020 est.)
-$2.162 billion (2019 est.)
comparison ranking: 159
Exports
$8.95 billion (2021 est.) note: data are in current year dollars
$7.646 billion (2020 est.) note: data are in current year dollars
$8.416 billion (2019 est.) note: data are in current year dollars
comparison ranking: 110
Exports - partners
China 81%, Switzerland 9% (2019)
Exports - commodities
copper, coal, gold, iron, animal hair, crude petroleum, zinc (2021)
Imports
$9.256 billion (2021 est.) note: data are in current year dollars
$7.34 billion (2020 est.) note: data are in current year dollars
$9.249 billion (2019 est.) note: data are in current year dollars
comparison ranking: 117
Imports - partners
China 31%, Russia 29%, Japan 10%, South Korea 5% (2019)
Imports - commodities
refined petroleum, cars, delivery trucks, construction vehicles, aircraft (2019)
Reserves of foreign exchange and gold
$4.38 billion (31 December 2021 est.)
$4.545 billion (31 December 2020 est.)
$4.364 billion (31 December 2019 est.)
comparison ranking: 106
Exchange rates
togrog/tugriks (MNT) per US dollar -
Exchange rates:
2,849.289 (2021 est.)
2,813.29 (2020 est.)
2,663.541 (2019 est.)
2,472.484 (2018 est.)
2,439.777 (2017 est.)
Energy
Electricity access
electrification - total population: 100% (2021)
Electricity
installed generating capacity: 1.479 million kW (2020 est.)
consumption: 7,336,520,000 kWh (2019 est.)
exports: 24 million kWh (2019 est.)
imports: 1.723 billion kWh (2019 est.)
transmission/distribution losses: 892 million kWh (2019 est.)
comparison rankings: installed generating capacity 126; transmission/distribution losses 116; imports 61; exports 94; consumption 109
Electricity generation sources
fossil fuels: 89.2% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)
nuclear: 0% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)
solar: 1.3% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)
wind: 8.1% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)
hydroelectricity: 1.3% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)
tide and wave: 0% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)
geothermal: 0% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)
biomass and waste: 0% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)
Coal
production: 43.904 million metric tons (2020 est.)
consumption: 8.818 million metric tons (2020 est.)
exports: 28.551 million metric tons (2020 est.)
imports: 1,000 metric tons (2020 est.)
proven reserves: 2.52 billion metric tons (2019 est.)
Petroleum
total petroleum production: 16,700 bbl/day (2021 est.)
refined petroleum consumption: 35,800 bbl/day (2019 est.)
crude oil and lease condensate exports: 14,700 bbl/day (2018 est.)
crude oil and lease condensate imports: 0 bbl/day (2018 est.)
Natural gas
production: 0 cubic meters (2021 est.)
consumption: 0 cubic meters (2021 est.)
exports: 0 cubic meters (2021 est.)
imports: 0 cubic meters (2021 est.)
proven reserves: 0 cubic meters (2021 est.)
Carbon dioxide emissions
22.74 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)
from coal and metallurgical coke: 17.445 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)
from petroleum and other liquids: 5.295 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)
from consumed natural gas: 0 metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)
comparison ranking: total emissions 83
Communications
Telephones - fixed lines
total subscriptions: 399,237 (2021 est.)
subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 12 (2021 est.)
comparison ranking: total subscriptions 102
Telephones - mobile cellular
total subscriptions: 4,687,304 (2021 est.)
subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 140 (2021 est.)
comparison ranking: total subscriptions 127
Telecommunication systems
general assessment: liberalized and competitive telecoms market comprises of a number of operators; fixed-line penetration increased steadily in the years to 2018 as more people took on fixed-line access for voice calls and to access copper-based broadband services; the number of lines fell in 2019, and again and more sharply in 2020, partly through the economic consequences of the pandemic (GDP fell 5.3% in 2020, year-on-year) and partly due to the migration to the mobile platform and to VoIP; fixed broadband penetration remains low, mainly due to a limited number of fixed lines and the dominance of the mobile platform; the attraction of fixed broadband as a preferred access where it is available is waning as the mobile networks are upgraded with greater capacity and capabilities; the growing popularity of mobile broadband continues to underpin overall broadband and telecom sector growth, with Mongolia’s market very much being dominated by mobile services, supported by widely available LTE; this will largely determine and shape the future direction of Mongolia’s developing digital economy (2021)
domestic: fixed-line teledensity of 12 per 100; mobile-cellular subscribership is 140 per 100 persons (2021)
international: country code - 976; satellite earth stations - 7 (2016)
Broadcast media
following a law passed in 2005, Mongolia's state-run radio and TV provider converted to a public service provider; also available are 68 radio and 160 TV stations, including multi-channel satellite and cable TV providers; transmissions of multiple international broadcasters are available (2019)
Internet users
total: 2.772 million (2021 est.)
percent of population: 84% (2021 est.)
comparison ranking: total 124
Broadband - fixed subscriptions
total: 307,166 (2020 est.)
subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 9 (2020 est.)
comparison ranking: total 106
Transportation
National air transport system
number of registered air carriers: 4 (2020)
inventory of registered aircraft operated by air carriers: 12
annual passenger traffic on registered air carriers: 670,360 (2018)
annual freight traffic on registered air carriers: 7.82 million (2018) mt-km
Airports - with paved runways
15
note: paved runways have a concrete or asphalt surface but not all have facilities for refueling, maintenance, or air traffic control; the length of a runway required for aircraft to safely operate depends on a number of factors including the type of aircraft, the takeoff weight (including passengers, cargo, and fuel), engine types, flap settings, landing speed, elevation of the airport, and average maximum daily air temperature; paved runways can reach a length of 5,000 m (16,000 ft.), but the “typical” length of a commercial airline runway is between 2,500-4,000 m (8,000-13,000 ft.)
Airports - with unpaved runways
29
note: unpaved runways have a surface composition such as grass or packed earth and are most suited to the operation of light aircraft; unpaved runways are usually short, often less than 1,000 m (3,280 ft.) in length; airports with unpaved runways often lack facilities for refueling, maintenance, or air traffic control
Heliports
1 (2021)
Railways
total: 1,815 km (2017)
broad gauge: 1,815 km (2017) 1.520-m gauge
note: national operator Ulaanbaatar Railway is jointly owned by the Mongolian Government and by the Russian State Railway
comparison ranking: total 77
Roadways
total: 113,200 km (2017)
paved: 10,600 km (2017)
unpaved: 102,600 km (2017)
comparison ranking: total 44
Waterways
580 km (2010) (the only waterway in operation is Lake Hovsgol) (135 km); Selenge River (270 km) and Orhon River (175 km) are navigable but carry little traffic; lakes and rivers ice-free from May to September)
comparison ranking: 88
Merchant marine
total: 314
by type: bulk carrier 3, container ship 6, general cargo 151, oil tanker 57, other 97 (2022)
comparison ranking: total 53
Military and Security
Military and security forces
Mongolian Armed Forces (MAF): Mongolian Ground Force (aka General Purpose Troops), Mongolian Air/Air Defense Force, Cyber Security Forces, Special Forces, Civil Engineering Forces, Civil Defense Forces (2023)
note: the National Police Agency and the General Authority for Border Protection, which operate under the Ministry of Justice and Home Affairs, are primarily responsible for internal security; they are assisted by the General Intelligence Agency under the prime minister; the MAF assists the internal security forces in providing domestic emergency assistance and disaster relief
Military expenditures
0.6% of GDP (2022 est.)
0.8% of GDP (2021 est.)
0.8% of GDP (2020 est.)
0.7% of GDP (2019 est.)
0.7% of GDP (2018 est.)
comparison ranking: 154
Military and security service personnel strengths
information varies; approximately 9,000 active duty troops (2023)
Military equipment inventories and acquisitions
the MAF's inventory is comprised of Soviet-era and Russian equipment (2023)
Military service age and obligation
18-27 years of age for compulsory and voluntary military service (can enter military schools at age 17); 12-month conscript service obligation for men in the army, air forces, or police (can be extended 3 months under special circumstances); conscription service can be exchanged for a 24‐month stint in the civil service or a cash payment determined by the Mongolian Government; after conscription, soldiers can contract into military service for 2 or 4 years; volunteer military service for men and women is 24 months, which can be extended for another two years up to the age of 31 (2023)
Military deployments
860 South Sudan (UNMISS) (2023)
note: from 2003 to July 2021, some 3,300 Mongolian troops served in Afghanistan, including about 1,300 under the NATO-led Resolute Support Mission (2015 to 2021); since 2002, Mongolia has deployed more than 19,000 peacekeepers and observers to UN operations in more than a dozen countries
Military - note
the MAF does not face any significant external military threats and focuses instead on counterterrorism, disaster response, and international peacekeeping; the Ground Force is the military’s primary service and is centered on a motorized infantry brigade equipped largely with Soviet-era equipment; it also has a battalion devoted to peacekeeping duties and hosts an annual international peacekeeping exercise known as “Khaan Quest”; Mongolia’s primary military partner is Russia, and in addition to receiving Russian military equipment, the MAF participates in Russia’s large “Vostok” exercise, which is conducted every four years
Mongolia has been engaged in dialogue and cooperation with NATO since 2005 and is considered by NATO to be a global partner; Mongolia supported the NATO-led Kosovo Force from 2005-2007 and contributed troops to the NATO-led International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan from 2009-2014, as well as to the follow-on Resolute Support Mission that provided training, advice, and other assistance to the Afghan security forces (2015-2021) (2023)
Space
Space agency/agencies
National Remote Sensing Center (NRSC; established 1987; under the Ministry of Infrastructure); Mongolian Space Technology Association (established 2019); Mongolian Communication and Information Technologies Authority (ACTI), Mongolian Digital Development and Communications Ministry (2023)
Space program overview
has a space program dating back to the country’s ties to the Soviet Union; modern day program focused on acquiring and manufacturing satellites; operates satellites and jointly builds them with foreign partners; developing capabilities to independently manufacture satellites with communications and remote sensing (RS) payloads; has a national strategy to acquire digital communications satellites and make use of RS satellite imagery data for economic development, environmental monitoring, natural disaster response, security, and weather forecasting; the strategy also includes promoting Mongolia’s domestic space industry and international cooperation in space technologies; has relations or cooperation agreements with a variety of foreign space agencies and industries, including those of China, France, India, Japan, Russia, and the US (2023)
note: further details about the key activities, programs, and milestones of the country’s space program, as well as government spending estimates on the space sector, appear in Appendix S
Transnational Issues
Disputes - international
none identified
Refugees and internally displaced persons
stateless persons: 17 (2022)